Effects of an Intervention to Improve Evidence-Based Care for People With Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease Across Sex, Race, and Ethnicity Subgroups: Insights From the COORDINATE-Diabetes Trial.

BACKGROUND: Results from the COORDINATE-Diabetes trial (Coordinating Cardiology Clinics Randomized Trial of Interventions to Improve Outcomes - Diabetes) demonstrated that a multifaceted, clinic-based intervention increased prescription of evidence-based medical therapies to participants with type 2 diabetes and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. This secondary analysis assessed whether intervention success was consistent across sex, race, and ethnicity. METHODS: COORDINATE-Diabetes, a cluster randomized trial, recruited participants from 43 US cardiology clinics (20 randomized to intervention and 23 randomized to usual care). The primary outcome was the proportion of participants prescribed all 3 groups of evidence-based therapy (high-intensity statin, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor/angiotensin receptor blocker, and sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor or glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist) at last trial assessment (6 to 12 months). In this prespecified analysis, mixed-effects logistic regression models were used to assess the outcome by self-reported sex, race, and ethnicity in the intervention and usual care groups, with adjustment for baseline characteristics, medications, comorbidities, and site location. RESULTS: Among 1045 participants with type 2 diabetes and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, the median age was 70 years, 32% were female, 16% were Black, and 9% were Hispanic. At the last trial assessment, there was an absolute increase in the proportion of participants prescribed all 3 groups of evidence-based therapy in women (36% versus 15%), Black participants (41% versus 18%), and Hispanic participants (46% versus 18%) with the intervention compared with usual care, with consistent benefit across sex (male versus female; Pinteraction=0.44), race (Black versus White; Pinteraction=0.59), and ethnicity (Hispanic versus Non-Hispanic; Pinteraction= 0.78). CONCLUSIONS: The COORDINATE-Diabetes intervention successfully improved delivery of evidence-based care, regardless of sex, race, or ethnicity. Widespread dissemination of this intervention could improve equitable health care quality, particularly among women and minority communities who are frequently underrepresented in clinical trials. REGISTRATION: URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT03936660.

Glycaemic control is still central in the hierarchy of priorities in type 2 diabetes management.

A panel of primary care and diabetes specialists conducted focused literature searches on the current role of glycaemic control in the management of type 2 diabetes and revisited the evolution of evidence supporting the importance of early and intensive blood glucose control as a central strategy to reduce the risk of adverse long-term outcomes. The optimal approach to type 2 diabetes management has evolved over time as the evidence base has expanded from data from trials that established the role of optimising glycaemic control to recent data from cardiovascular outcomes trials (CVOTs) demonstrating organ-protective effects of newer glucose-lowering drugs (GLDs). The results from these CVOTs were derived mainly from people with type 2 diabetes and prior cardiovascular and kidney disease or multiple risk factors. In more recent years, earlier diagnosis in high-risk individuals has contributed to the large proportion of people with type 2 diabetes who do not have complications. In these individuals, a legacy effect of early and optimal control of blood glucose and cardiometabolic risk factors has been proven to reduce cardiovascular and kidney disease events and all-cause mortality. As there is a lack of RCTs investigating the potential synergistic effects of intensive glucose control and organ-protective effects of newer GLDs, this article re-evaluates the evolution of the scientific evidence and highlights the importance of integrating glycaemic control as a pivotal early therapeutic goal in most people with type 2 diabetes, while targeting existing cardiovascular and kidney disease. We also emphasise the importance of implementing multifactorial management using a multidisciplinary approach to facilitate regular review, patient empowerment and the possibility of tailoring interventions to account for the heterogeneity of type 2 diabetes.

Oral semaglutide 50 mg taken once per day in adults with overweight or obesity (OASIS 1): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial.

BACKGROUND: We assessed the efficacy and safety of the oral glucagon-like peptide-1 analogue, semaglutide 50 mg, taken once per day versus placebo for the treatment of overweight or obesity in adults without type 2 diabetes. METHODS: This randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3, superiority trial enrolled adults with a BMI of at least 30 kg/m2, or at least 27 kg/m2 with bodyweight-related complications and comorbidities, without type 2 diabetes. The trial was done at 50 outpatient clinics in nine countries across Asia, Europe, and North America. Participants were randomly allocated (1:1) via an interactive web-response system to oral semaglutide escalated to 50 mg, or visually matching placebo, once per day for 68 weeks, plus lifestyle intervention. Group assignment was masked for participants, investigators, and those assessing outcomes. Coprimary endpoints were the percentage change in bodyweight and whether participants reached a bodyweight reduction of at least 5% at week 68 for oral semaglutide 50 mg versus placebo, assessed regardless of treatment discontinuation or use of other bodyweight-lowering therapies (an intention-to-treat analysis). Safety was assessed in participants who received at least one dose of trial drug. This trial, registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT05035095), is now complete. FINDINGS: From Sept 13 to Nov 22, 2021, 709 participants were screened, of whom 667 were randomly assigned to oral semaglutide 50 mg (n=334) or placebo (n=333). The estimated mean bodyweight change from baseline to week 68 was -15·1% (SE 0·5) with oral semaglutide 50 mg versus -2·4% (0·5) with placebo (estimated treatment difference -12·7 percentage points, 95% CI -14·2 to -11·3; p<0·0001). More participants reached bodyweight reductions of at least 5% (269 [85%] of 317 vs 76 [26%] of 295; odds ratio [OR] 12·6, 95% CI 8·5 to 18·7; p<0·0001), 10% (220 [69%] vs 35 [12%]; OR 14·7, 9·6 to 22·6), 15% (170 [54%] vs 17 [6%]; OR 17·9, 10·4 to 30·7), and 20% (107 [34%] vs 8 [3%]; OR 18·5, 8·8 to 38·9) at week 68 with oral semaglutide 50 mg versus placebo. Adverse events were more frequent with oral semaglutide 50 mg (307 [92%] of 334) than with placebo (285 [86%] of 333). Gastrointestinal adverse events (mostly mild to moderate) were reported in 268 (80%) participants with oral semaglutide 50 mg and 154 (46%) with placebo. INTERPRETATION: In adults with overweight or obesity without type 2 diabetes, oral semaglutide 50 mg once per day led to a superior and clinically meaningful decrease in bodyweight compared with placebo. FUNDING: Novo Nordisk.

Efficacy and safety of once-daily oral semaglutide 25 mg and 50 mg compared with 14 mg in adults with type 2 diabetes (PIONEER PLUS): a multicentre, randomised, phase 3b trial.

BACKGROUND: Once-daily oral semaglutide is an effective type 2 diabetes treatment. We aimed to investigate a new formulation of oral semaglutide at higher investigational doses versus the approved 14 mg dose in adults with inadequately controlled type 2 diabetes. METHODS: This global, multicentre, randomised, double-blind, phase 3b trial, carried out at 177 sites in 14 countries, enrolled adults with type 2 diabetes, glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) 8·0-10·5% (64-91 mmol/mol), a BMI of 25·0 kg/m2 or greater, receiving stable daily doses of one to three oral glucose-lowering drugs. Participants were randomly assigned (1:1:1), by means of an interactive web response system, to once-daily oral semaglutide 14 mg, 25 mg, or 50 mg for 68 weeks. Investigators, site personnel, trial participants, and trial sponsor staff were masked to dose assignment throughout the trial. The primary endpoint was change in HbA1c from baseline to week 52, evaluated with a treatment policy estimand in the intention-to-treat population. Safety was assessed in all participants who received at least one dose of trial drug. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04707469, and the European Clinical Trials register, EudraCT 2020-000299-39, and is complete. FINDINGS: Between Jan 15 and Sept 29, 2021, of 2294 people screened, 1606 (n=936 [58·3%] male; n=670 [41·7%] female; mean [SD] age 58·2 [10·8] years) received oral semaglutide 14 mg (n=536), 25 mg (n=535), or 50 mg (n=535). At baseline, mean (SD) HbA1c was 9·0% (0·8; 74·4 mmol/L [SD 8·3]) and mean bodyweight was 96·4 kg (21·6). Mean changes (SE) in HbA1c at week 52 were -1·5 percentage points (SE 0·05) with oral semaglutide 14 mg, -1·8 percentage points (0·06) with 25 mg (estimated treatment difference [ETD] -0·27, 95% CI -0·42 to -0·12; p=0·0006), and -2·0 percentage points (0·06) with 50 mg (ETD -0·53, -0·68 to -0·38; p<0·0001). Adverse events were reported by 404 (76%) participants in the oral semaglutide 14 mg group, 422 (79%) in the 25 mg group, and 428 (80%) in the 50 mg group. Gastrointestinal disorders, which were mostly mild to moderate, occurred more frequently with oral semaglutide 25 mg and 50 mg than with 14 mg. Ten deaths occurred during the trial; none were judged to be treatment related. INTERPRETATION: Oral semaglutide 25 mg and 50 mg were superior to 14 mg in reducing HbA1c and bodyweight in adults with inadequately controlled type 2 diabetes. No new safety concerns were identified. FUNDING: Novo Nordisk.

Glycaemic control and macrovascular and microvascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of trials investigating intensive glucose-lowering strategies in people with type 2 diabetes.

AIM: We aimed to determine the macrovascular and microvascular outcomes of intensive versus standard glucose-lowering strategies in type 2 diabetes (T2D) and investigate the relationships between these outcomes and trial arm glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) reduction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we identified relevant trials from MEDLINE, Embase, the Cochrane Library, and bibliographies up to August 2023. Macrovascular and microvascular outcomes, along with safety outcomes, were evaluated. Pooled study-specific hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated, and meta-regression was employed to analyse the relationships between outcomes and HbA1c reduction. RESULTS: We included 11 unique RCTs involving 51 469 patients with T2D (intensive therapy, N = 26 691; standard therapy, N = 24 778). Intensive versus standard therapy reduced the risk of non-fatal myocardial infarction (MI) (HR 0.84; 95% CI 0.75-0.94) with no difference in the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events (HR 0.97; 95% CI 0.92-1.03) and other adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Intensive versus standard therapy reduced the risk of retinopathy (HR 0.85; 0.78-0.93), nephropathy (HR 0.71; 0.58-0.87) and composite microvascular outcomes (HR 0.88; 0.77-1.00). Meta-regression analyses showed modest evidence of inverse linear relationships between HbA1c reduction and the outcomes of major adverse cardiovascular events, non-fatal MI, stroke and retinopathy, but these were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: In people with T2D, intensive glucose control was associated with a reduced risk of non-fatal MI and several microvascular outcomes, particularly retinopathy and nephropathy. The lack of an effect of intensive glucose-lowering on most macrovascular outcomes calls for a more comprehensive approach to managing cardiovascular risk factors alongside glycaemic control.

A look at duodenal mucosal resurfacing: Rationale for targeting the duodenum in type 2 diabetes.

Affecting 5%-10% of the world population, type 2 diabetes (T2DM) is firmly established as one of the major health burdens of modern society. People with T2DM require long-term therapies to reduce blood glucose, an approach that can mitigate the vascular complications. However, fewer than half of those living with T2DM reach their glycaemic targets despite the availability of multiple oral and injectable medications. Adherence and access to medications are major barriers contributing to suboptimal diabetes treatment. The gastrointestinal tract has recently emerged as a target for treating T2DM and altering the underlying disease course. Preclinical and clinical analyses have elucidated changes in the mucosal layer of the duodenum potentially caused by dietary excess and obesity, which seem to be prevalent among individuals with metabolic disease. Supporting these findings, gastric bypass, a surgical procedure which removes the duodenum from the intestinal nutrient flow, has remarkable effects that improve, and often cause remission of, diabetes. From this perspective, we explore the rationale for targeting the duodenum with duodenal mucosal resurfacing (DMR). We examine the underlying physiology of the duodenum and its emerging role in T2DM pathogenesis, the rationale for targeting the duodenum by DMR as a potential treatment for T2DM, and current data surrounding DMR. Importantly, DMR has been demonstrated to change mucosal abnormalities common in those with obesity and diabetes. Given the multifactorial aetiology of T2DM, understanding proximate contributors to disease pathogenesis opens the door to rethinking therapeutic approaches to T2DM, from symptom management toward disease modification.

Glycaemic control and macrovascular and microvascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes: Systematic review and meta-analysis of cardiovascular outcome trials of novel glucose-lowering agents.

AIM: Using a systematic review and meta-analysis of placebo-controlled cardiovascular outcome trials (CVOTs) of newer glucose-lowering agents [sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT-2is), glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs), and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors (DPP-4is)] in type 2 diabetes (T2D), we aimed to determine the macrovascular and microvascular outcomes of these agents and clarify the relationships between glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) reduction and risk of these outcomes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Randomized controlled trials were identified from MEDLINE, Embase and the Cochrane Library until September 2023. Study-specific hazard ratios with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were pooled, and meta-regression was used to assess the relationships between outcomes and between trial arm HbA1c reductions. RESULTS: Twenty unique CVOTs (six SGLT-2is, nine GLP-1RAs, five DPP-4is), based on 169 513 participants with T2D, were eligible. Comparing SGLT-2is, GLP-1RAs and DPP-4is with placebo, the hazard ratios (95% CIs) for 3-point major adverse cardiovascular events were 0.88 (0.82-0.94), 0.85 (0.79-0.92) and 1.00 (0.94-1.06), respectively. SGLT-2is and GLP-1RAs consistently reduced the risk of several macrovascular and microvascular complications, particularly kidney events. DPP-4is showed no macrovascular benefits. There was potential evidence of an inverse linear relationship between HbA1c reduction and 3-point major adverse cardiovascular event risk (estimated risk per 1% reduction in HbA1c: 0.84, 95% CI 0.67-1.06; p = .14; R2 = 14.2%), which was driven by the component of non-fatal stroke (R2 = 100.0%; p = .094). There were non-significant inverse linear relationships between HbA1c reduction and the risk of several vascular outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: SGLT-2is and GLP-1RAs showed consistent risk reductions in macrovascular and microvascular outcomes. The vascular benefits of SGLT-2is and GLP-1RAs in patients with T2D extend beyond mere glycaemic control.

Coordinating Cardiology clinics randomized trial of interventions to improve outcomes (COORDINATE) - Diabetes: rationale and design.

Several medications that are proven to reduce cardiovascular events exist for individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, however they are substantially underused in clinical practice. Clinician, patient, and system-level barriers all contribute to these gaps in care; yet, there is a paucity of high quality, rigorous studies evaluating the role of interventions to increase utilization. The COORDINATE-Diabetes trial randomized 42 cardiology clinics across the United States to either a multifaceted, site-specific intervention focused on evidence-based care for patients with T2DM or standard of care. The multifaceted intervention comprised the development of an interdisciplinary care pathway for each clinic, audit-and-feedback tools and educational outreach, in addition to patient-facing tools. The primary outcome is the proportion of individuals with T2DM prescribed three key classes of evidence-based medications (high-intensity statin, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker, and either a sodium/glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor (SGLT-2i) inhibitor or glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist (GLP-1RA) and will be assessed at least 6 months after participant enrollment. COORDINATE-Diabetes aims to identify strategies that improve the implementation and adoption of evidence-based therapies.

Safety and tolerability of semaglutide across the SUSTAIN and PIONEER phase IIIa clinical trial programmes.

AIM: Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists improve glycaemic control: some are now available as oral and subcutaneous formulations, and some have indications for reducing cardiovascular risk. The expanded scope for these therapies warrants comprehensive safety evaluations. We report the safety/tolerability of subcutaneous and oral semaglutide from the SUSTAIN and PIONEER clinical trial programmes, respectively. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Adverse events (AEs) from 16 randomized placebo- or active-controlled phase IIIa trials in patients with type 2 diabetes (n = 11 159) including once-weekly subcutaneous semaglutide (n = 3150; SUSTAIN trials) or once-daily oral semaglutide (n = 4116; PIONEER trials) were analysed. Data pools were analysed for each programme, with separate analyses of cardiovascular outcomes trials (CVOTs; n = 6480). RESULTS: In the phase IIIa pools, gastrointestinal disorders were reported in 41.9%/39.1% of patients with subcutaneous/oral semaglutide, respectively (most prevalent during initiation/escalation) versus 22.0%/24.8% with comparators. Rates of kidney disorders, acute pancreatitis, malignant neoplasms, hypoglycaemia, diabetic retinopathy, heart failure and other cardiovascular events were similar for semaglutide versus comparators. Cholelithiasis incidence was higher with subcutaneous and oral semaglutide versus placebo. Diabetic retinopathy incidence was higher with subcutaneous semaglutide versus placebo in SUSTAIN 6. Small pulse rate increases occurred with both formulations; there was no increased rate of arrhythmias. Fatal AE incidence was similar between semaglutide and comparators. Versus placebo, CVOTs showed a reduced risk of major adverse cardiovascular events with subcutaneous semaglutide and non-inferiority criteria were met with oral semaglutide. CONCLUSIONS: The most common AEs with semaglutide were gastrointestinal disorders, which decreased with continued therapy. These comprehensive safety/tolerability data may better inform patient selection and guidance in care.

Efficacy and safety of once-weekly efpeglenatide in people with suboptimally controlled type 2 diabetes: The AMPLITUDE-D, AMPLITUDE-L and AMPLITUDE-S randomized controlled trials.

AIM: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of once-weekly (QW) efpeglenatide in people with type 2 diabetes (T2D) suboptimally controlled with oral glucose-lowering drugs and/or basal insulin (BI). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Three phase 3, multicentre, randomized controlled trials compared the efficacy and safety of QW efpeglenatide versus dulaglutide when added to metformin (AMPLITUDE-D), efpeglenatide versus placebo when added to BI ± oral glucose-lowering drugs (AMPLITUDE-L) or metformin ± sulphonylurea (AMPLITUDE-S). All trials were terminated early by the sponsor because of funding rather than safety or efficacy concerns. RESULTS: In AMPLITUDE-D, non-inferiority of efpeglenatide to dulaglutide 1.5 mg was shown in HbA1c reduction from baseline to week 56, least squares mean treatment difference (95% CI): 4 mg, -0.03% (-0.20%, 0.14%)/-0.35 mmol/mol (-2.20, 1.49); 6 mg, -0.08% (-0.25%, 0.09%)/-0.90 mmol/mol (-2.76, 0.96). The reductions in body weight (approximately 3 kg) from baseline to week 56 were similar across all treatment groups. In AMPLITUDE-L and AMPLITUDE-S, numerically greater reduction in HbA1c and body weight were observed at all doses of efpeglenatide than placebo. American Diabetes Association level 2 hypoglycaemia (< 54 mg/dL [< 3.0 mmol/L]) was reported in few participants across all treatment groups (AMPLITUDE-D, ≤ 1%; AMPLITUDE-L, ≤ 10%; and AMPLITUDE-S, ≤ 4%). The adverse events profile was consistent with other glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs); gastrointestinal adverse events were most frequent in all three studies. CONCLUSIONS: In people with T2D suboptimally controlled with oral glucose-lowering drugs and/or BI, QW efpeglenatide was non-inferior to dulaglutide in terms of HbA1c reduction and showed numerically greater improvements than placebo in glycaemic control and body weight, with safety consistent with the GLP-1 RA class.

Coordinated Care to Optimize Cardiovascular Preventive Therapies in Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Evidence-based therapies to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk in adults with type 2 diabetes are underused in clinical practice. Objective: To assess the effect of a coordinated, multifaceted intervention of assessment, education, and feedback vs usual care on the proportion of adults with type 2 diabetes and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease prescribed all 3 groups of recommended, evidence-based therapies (high-intensity statins, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors [ACEIs] or angiotensin receptor blockers [ARBs], and sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 [SGLT2] inhibitors and/or glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists [GLP-1RAs]). Design, Setting, and Participants: Cluster randomized clinical trial with 43 US cardiology clinics recruiting participants from July 2019 through May 2022 and follow-up through December 2022. The participants were adults with type 2 diabetes and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease not already taking all 3 groups of evidence-based therapies. Interventions: Assessing local barriers, developing care pathways, coordinating care, educating clinicians, reporting data back to the clinics, and providing tools for participants (n = 459) vs usual care per practice guidelines (n = 590). Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was the proportion of participants prescribed all 3 groups of recommended therapies at 6 to 12 months after enrollment. The secondary outcomes included changes in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk factors and a composite outcome of all-cause death or hospitalization for myocardial infarction, stroke, decompensated heart failure, or urgent revascularization (the trial was not powered to show these differences). Results: Of 1049 participants enrolled (459 at 20 intervention clinics and 590 at 23 usual care clinics), the median age was 70 years and there were 338 women (32.2%), 173 Black participants (16.5%), and 90 Hispanic participants (8.6%). At the last follow-up visit (12 months for 97.3% of participants), those in the intervention group were more likely to be prescribed all 3 therapies (173/457 [37.9%]) vs the usual care group (85/588 [14.5%]), which is a difference of 23.4% (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 4.38 [95% CI, 2.49 to 7.71]; P < .001) and were more likely to be prescribed each of the 3 therapies (change from baseline in high-intensity statins from 66.5% to 70.7% for intervention vs from 58.2% to 56.8% for usual care [adjusted OR, 1.73; 95% CI, 1.06-2.83]; ACEIs or ARBs: from 75.1% to 81.4% for intervention vs from 69.6% to 68.4% for usual care [adjusted OR, 1.82; 95% CI, 1.14-2.91]; SGLT2 inhibitors and/or GLP-1RAs: from 12.3% to 60.4% for intervention vs from 14.5% to 35.5% for usual care [adjusted OR, 3.11; 95% CI, 2.08-4.64]). The intervention was not associated with changes in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk factors. The composite secondary outcome occurred in 23 of 457 participants (5%) in the intervention group vs 40 of 588 participants (6.8%) in the usual care group (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.79 [95% CI, 0.46 to 1.33]). Conclusions and Relevance: A coordinated, multifaceted intervention increased prescription of 3 groups of evidence-based therapies in adults with type 2 diabetes and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03936660.

Management of hyperglycaemia in type 2 diabetes, 2022. A consensus report by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD).

The American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes convened a panel to update the previous consensus statements on the management of hyperglycaemia in type 2 diabetes in adults, published since 2006 and last updated in 2019. The target audience is the full spectrum of the professional healthcare team providing diabetes care in the USA and Europe. A systematic examination of publications since 2018 informed new recommendations. These include additional focus on social determinants of health, the healthcare system and physical activity behaviours including sleep. There is a greater emphasis on weight management as part of the holistic approach to diabetes management. The results of cardiovascular and kidney outcomes trials involving sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, including assessment of subgroups, inform broader recommendations for cardiorenal protection in people with diabetes at high risk of cardiorenal disease. After a summary listing of consensus recommendations, practical tips for implementation are provided.

Incorporating SGLT2i and GLP-1RA for Cardiovascular and Kidney Disease Risk Reduction: Call for Action to the Cardiology Community.

Multiple sodium glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT-2i) and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RA) have been shown to impart significant cardiovascular and kidney benefits, but are underused in clinical practice. Both SGLT-2i and GLP-1RA were first studied as glucose-lowering drugs, which may have impeded uptake by cardiologists in the wake of proven cardiovascular efficacy. Their significant effect on cardiovascular and kidney outcomes, which are largely independent of glucose-lowering effects, must drive a broader use of these drugs. Cardiologists are 3 times more likely than endocrinologists to see patients with both type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease, thus they are ideally positioned to share responsibility for SGLT-2i and GLP-1RA treatment with primary care providers. In order to increase adoption, SGLT-2i and GLP-1RA must be reframed as primarily cardiovascular and kidney disease risk-reducing agents with a side effect of glucose-lowering. Coordinated and multifaceted interventions engaging clinicians, patients, payers, professional societies, and health systems must be implemented to incentivize the adoption of these medications as part of routine cardiovascular and kidney care. Greater use of SGLT-2i and GLP-1RA will improve outcomes for patients with type 2 diabetes at high risk for cardiovascular and kidney disease.

Vitamin D Supplementation and Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Observational studies support an association between a low blood 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and the risk of type 2 diabetes. However, whether vitamin D supplementation lowers the risk of diabetes is unknown. METHODS: We randomly assigned adults who met at least two of three glycemic criteria for prediabetes (fasting plasma glucose level, 100 to 125 mg per deciliter; plasma glucose level 2 hours after a 75-g oral glucose load, 140 to 199 mg per deciliter; and glycated hemoglobin level, 5.7 to 6.4%) and no diagnostic criteria for diabetes to receive 4000 IU per day of vitamin D3 or placebo, regardless of the baseline serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level. The primary outcome in this time-to-event analysis was new-onset diabetes, and the trial design was event-driven, with a target number of diabetes events of 508. RESULTS: A total of 2423 participants underwent randomization (1211 to the vitamin D group and 1212 to the placebo group). By month 24, the mean serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level in the vitamin D group was 54.3 ng per milliliter (from 27.7 ng per milliliter at baseline), as compared with 28.8 ng per milliliter in the placebo group (from 28.2 ng per milliliter at baseline). After a median follow-up of 2.5 years, the primary outcome of diabetes occurred in 293 participants in the vitamin D group and 323 in the placebo group (9.39 and 10.66 events per 100 person-years, respectively). The hazard ratio for vitamin D as compared with placebo was 0.88 (95% confidence interval, 0.75 to 1.04; P = 0.12). The incidence of adverse events did not differ significantly between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: Among persons at high risk for type 2 diabetes not selected for vitamin D insufficiency, vitamin D3 supplementation at a dose of 4000 IU per day did not result in a significantly lower risk of diabetes than placebo. (Funded by the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases and others; D2d ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT01942694.).

A new era for oral peptides: SNAC and the development of oral semaglutide for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) were first introduced for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D) in 2005. Despite the high efficacy and other benefits of GLP-1RAs, their uptake was initially limited by the fact that they could only be administered by injection. Semaglutide is a human GLP-1 analog that has been shown to significantly improve glycemic control and reduce body weight, in addition to improving cardiovascular outcomes, in patients with T2D. First approved as a once-weekly subcutaneous injection, semaglutide was considered an ideal peptide candidate for oral delivery with a permeation enhancer on account of its low molecular weight, long half-life, and high potency. An oral formulation of semaglutide was therefore developed by co-formulating semaglutide with sodium N-(8-[2-hydroxybenzoyl]amino)caprylate, a well-characterized transcellular permeation enhancer, to produce the first orally administered GLP-1RA. Pharmacokinetic analysis showed that stable steady-state concentrations could be achieved with once-daily dosing owing to the long half-life of oral semaglutide. Upper gastrointestinal disease and renal and hepatic impairment did not affect the pharmacokinetic profile. In the phase III PIONEER clinical trial program, oral semaglutide was shown to reduce glycated hemoglobin and body weight compared with placebo and active comparators in patients with T2D, with no new safety signals reported. Cardiovascular efficacy and safety are currently being assessed in a dedicated outcomes trial. The development of an oral GLP-1RA represents a significant milestone in the management of T2D, providing an additional efficacious treatment option for patients.

Reconsidering the role of glycaemic control in cardiovascular disease risk in type 2 diabetes: A 21st century assessment.

It is well known that the multiple factors contributing to the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (T2D) confer an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although the relationship between hyperglycaemia and increased microvascular risk is well established, the relative contribution of hyperglycaemia to macrovascular events has been strongly debated, particularly owing to the failure of attempts to reduce CVD risk through normalizing glycaemia with traditional therapies in high-risk populations. The debate has been further fuelled by the relatively recent discovery of the cardioprotective properties of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors. Further, as guidelines now recommend individualizing glycaemic targets, highlighting the importance of achieving glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) goals safely, the previously observed negative influences of intensive therapy on CVD risk might not present if trials were repeated using current-day treatments and individualized HbA1c goals. Emerging longitudinal data illuminate the overall effect of excess glucose, the impacts of magnitude and duration of hyperglycaemia on disease progression and risk of CVD complications, and the importance of glycaemic control at or early after diagnosis of T2D for prevention of complications. Herein, we review the role of glucose as a modifiable cardiovascular (CV) risk factor, the role of microvascular disease in predicting macrovascular risk, and the deleterious impact of therapeutic inertia on CVD risk. We reconcile new and old data to offer a current perspective, highlighting the importance of effective, early treatment in reducing latent CV risk, and the timely use of appropriate therapy individualized to each patient's needs.

Efficacy and safety of oral semaglutide by subgroups of patient characteristics in the PIONEER phase 3 programme.

AIMS: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of oral semaglutide versus comparators by patient characteristic subgroups in patients with type 2 diabetes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Change from baseline in glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) and body weight, and achievement of HbA1c <7.0% with oral semaglutide 7 mg, oral semaglutide 14 mg, flexibly dosed oral semaglutide (flex) and comparators were assessed across baseline subgroups (age, race, ethnicity, diabetes duration, body mass index and HbA1c) from the PIONEER programme. Treatment differences were analysed using a mixed model for repeated measurements for continuous variables and a logistic regression model for the binary endpoint. Pooled safety data were analysed descriptively. RESULTS: Changes from baseline in HbA1c and body weight, and the odds of achieving HbA1c <7.0%, were greater with oral semaglutide 14 mg/flex (n = 1934) and higher or similar with oral semaglutide 7 mg (n = 823) versus comparators (n = 2077) across most subgroups. Changes in HbA1c with oral semaglutide 14 mg/flex were greater for patients with higher baseline HbA1c (HbA1c >9.0%: -1.7% to -2.6%; HbA1c <8.0%: -0.7% to -1.2%). In some trials, Asian patients experienced greater HbA1c reductions with oral semaglutide 14 mg/flex (-1.5% to -1.8%) than other racial groups (-0.6% to -1.6%). The overall incidence of adverse events (AEs) with oral semaglutide was similar to that with comparators and was consistent across subgroups. More gastrointestinal AEs were observed with oral semaglutide, versus comparators, across subgroups. CONCLUSIONS: Oral semaglutide demonstrated consistently greater HbA1c and body weight reductions across a range of patient characteristics, with greater HbA1c reductions seen at higher baseline HbA1c levels.

Re-examining the widespread policy of stopping sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors during acute illness: A perspective based on the updated evidence.

Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are now seen as an integral part of therapy in type 2 diabetes to control not only blood glucose but to improve cardiovascular and kidney outcomes. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is an uncommon but serious complication of type 2 diabetes, which has a high case fatality rate. The absolute risk of DKA in large, prospective randomized clinical trials in people with type 2 diabetes using SGLT2 inhibitors has been low, although the relative risk is higher in those assigned to SGLT2 inhibitors compared with placebo. In those without diabetes but prescribed SGLT2 inhibitors for heart failure or chronic kidney disease, the risk of DKA is similar to placebo. Over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, cases of DKA have also been reported in cases of COVID-19 hospitalizations. Consensus guidelines have recommended that SGLT2 inhibitors should be avoided in cases of serious illness and suggest they are not recommended for routine in-hospital use. However, recent data suggest potential beneficial effects of SGLT2 inhibitors in the setting of acute illness with COVID-19 with no increase in adverse events and low rates of DKA, which were non-severe. Given the low rates of DKA in cardiovascular outcome trials and in hospitalized patients with type 2 diabetes, the potential for SGLT2 inhibitors not being re-initiated following discharge and their cardiovascular and kidney benefits, we believe the practice of routine 'sick day' guidance should be re-examined based on current evidence with a call for further research in this area. Furthermore, high-quality trials of initiation of SGLT2 inhibitors in people admitted to hospital with cardiovascular disease or kidney disease, and trials of continuation of SGLT2 inhibitors in people, with careful monitoring of DKA should be conducted. These should be further supplemented with large observational studies.

Asymptomatic Diabetic Cardiomyopathy: an Underrecognized Entity in Type 2 Diabetes.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is associated with an increased risk of heart failure (HF), with diabetic cardiomyopathy (DbCM) referring to abnormal heart structure in the absence of other driving cardiac factors such as hypertension, coronary artery disease (CAD), and valvular heart disease. Stage B DbCM is commonly asymptomatic and represents a form of stage B HF; DbCM thus represents a transitional phenotype prior to onset of symptomatic HF. The pathogenesis of DbCM is not fully elucidated but involves hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, increased free fatty acids (FFA), lipotoxicity, oxidative stress, advanced glycation end product (AGE) formation, activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) with an increase in angiotensin II, and dyshomeostasis of calcium, which all contribute to left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and cardiac systolic and diastolic dysfunction. Although DbCM is an established pathogenic process, it is underrecognized clinically due to its commonly asymptomatic nature. Raising awareness to identify high-risk individuals with stage B HF due to DbCM, who may subsequently progress to overt HF (stage C/D HF), as well as identifying new pharmacological agents and approaches to prevent functional decline, may help reduce this global health problem. The aim of this review is to focus on stage B DbCM; provide data on diagnostic approaches, current therapies, and potential therapies under investigation; and highlight the need to raise awareness and interdisciplinary dialogue among clinicians and researchers. RECENT FINDINGS: There are no currently approved therapeutic strategies to treat or prevent progression of stage B DbCM, but multiple attempts are being made to target different pathogenic mechanisms involved in the development of DbCM. Recent cardiovascular (CV) outcome trials (CVOTs) have identified newer therapeutic agents with CV benefit, such as sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors that reduce hospitalization for HF and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists that reduce major adverse CV events (MACE), though without consistent effect on HF outcomes. Recent clinical practice guidelines recommend screening patients at high risk for HF. Further definition and interdisciplinary discussion of high-yield populations to screen, appropriate subsequent evaluation and intervention are needed to advance this area. DbCM is a complex entity that results from multiple pathogenic mechanisms triggered by impairment of glucose and lipid metabolism over many years. DbCM is commonly asymptomatic and represents a form of stage B HF. It is an underrecognized process that may progress to functional decline and overt HF. Although newer medications approved for the treatment of T2D may play an important role in reducing the risk of HF complications, less focus has been placed on earlier recognition and treatment of DbCM while asymptomatic. Additional efforts should be made to further study and target this stage in order to decrease the overall burden of HF.

Insights into the early use of oral semaglutide in routine clinical practice: The IGNITE study.

Oral semaglutide is the first oral glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist for the treatment of type 2 diabetes, and showed significant benefits in glycaemic control and weight reduction versus active comparators in the PIONEER phase 3a randomized controlled trial programme. In this retrospective study, we present early data on the use of oral semaglutide in clinical practice, from the US IBM Explorys electronic health record database. In 782 patients prescribed oral semaglutide, 54.5% were women, and the mean age (SD) was 57.8 years (11.3); 66.0% of patients received their prescription from a primary care practitioner. Although prescribing information recommends increasing the dose to 7 mg after 30 days, 37.0% of patients received a prescription only for the initial 3 mg dose. Mean body mass index was 36.2 kg/m2 (7.6); mean HbA1c was 8.4% (1.8%). Mean HbA1c change from baseline to approximately 6 months after oral semaglutide initiation was -0.9% (95% CI: -1.1%; -0.6%), with greater reductions in patients with higher baseline HbA1c. These data indicate prevalent early adoption of oral semaglutide in primary care, show real-world improvements in glycaemic control, and identify potential treatment gaps.