Chronic Binge Alcohol-Associated Differential Brain Region Modulation of Growth Factor Signaling Pathways and Neuroinflammation in Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Male Macaques.

AIMS: Microarray analysis of hippocampal tissue from chronic binge alcohol (CBA)-administered, simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected male macaques identified altered immune response and neurogenesis as potential mechanisms underlying cognitive deficits in macaques. This study investigated the differential brain region associations between markers of neuroinflammation and growth factor signaling with microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) expression. METHODS: Adult male rhesus macaques were administered CBA (13-14 g EtOH/kg/week, n = 8) or sucrose (SUC, n = 7) beginning 3 months prior to SIV infection and continued until animals reached end-stage disease criteria (3-24 months post infection). Expression of inflammatory cytokines, growth factors, and viral loads were determined in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), caudate (CD), and hippocampus (HP). Brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) expression and phosphorylation of intracellular kinases downstream of BDNF were investigated in the PFC. RESULTS: Our results show reduced MAP2 expression in the PFC of longer-surviving, CBA/SIV macaques. BDNF expression was most closely associated with MAP2 expression in the PFC. In the caudate, significant positive associations were observed between MAP2 and BDNF, time to end-stage and set-point viral load and significant negative associations for CBA. In the hippocampus, positive associations were observed between MAP2 and inflammatory cytokines, and negative associations for brain viral load and CBA. CONCLUSIONS: CBA differentially affects growth factor and inflammatory cytokine expression and viral load across brain regions. In the PFC, suppression of growth factor signaling may be an important neuropathological mechanism, while inflammatory processes may play a more important role in the CD and HP.

Differential contribution of chronic binge alcohol and antiretroviral therapy to metabolic dysregulation in SIV-infected male macaques.

The incidence of alcohol use disorder (AUD) is higher among people living with HIV (PLWH). The advent and continued development of antiretroviral therapy (ART) has significantly reduced mortality, shifting the course of HIV infection to a chronic illness. However, this is associated with an increased incidence of comorbid conditions, including type 2 diabetes mellitus, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular complications. Using a nonhuman primate model of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection, previous studies have demonstrated that chronic binge alcohol (CBA) administration decreases whole body insulin responsiveness, irrespective of ART administration. The objective of the current study was to determine the effects of CBA and ART on insulin-sensitive peripheral tissues before the development of overt clinical symptoms of SIV disease. Our results show that CBA reduced omental adipocyte cell size, increased collagen expression, and decreased the in vitro differentiation potential of adipose-derived stem cells. In contrast, it did not alter skeletal muscle or omental or hepatic expression of insulin signaling proteins. However, ART significantly decreased skeletal muscle expression of phosphatase and tensin homolog, total mechanistic target of rapamycin, and ribosomal protein S6. In addition, ART increased hepatic phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase α and increased gene expression of key enzymes required for gluconeogenesis and fatty acid synthesis. These findings suggest that CBA and ART differentially promote adverse metabolic effects in an organ-specific manner that may underlie insulin resistance associated with alcohol, SIV, and ART. Whether this is translated in PLWH with AUD remains to be determined.

Streptococcus pneumoniae translocates into the myocardium and forms unique microlesions that disrupt cardiac function.

Hospitalization of the elderly for invasive pneumococcal disease is frequently accompanied by the occurrence of an adverse cardiac event; these are primarily new or worsened heart failure and cardiac arrhythmia. Herein, we describe previously unrecognized microscopic lesions (microlesions) formed within the myocardium of mice, rhesus macaques, and humans during bacteremic Streptococcus pneumoniae infection. In mice, invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) severity correlated with levels of serum troponin, a marker for cardiac damage, the development of aberrant cardiac electrophysiology, and the number and size of cardiac microlesions. Microlesions were prominent in the ventricles, vacuolar in appearance with extracellular pneumococci, and remarkable due to the absence of infiltrating immune cells. The pore-forming toxin pneumolysin was required for microlesion formation but Interleukin-1ß was not detected at the microlesion site ruling out pneumolysin-mediated pyroptosis as a cause of cell death. Antibiotic treatment resulted in maturing of the lesions over one week with robust immune cell infiltration and collagen deposition suggestive of long-term cardiac scarring. Bacterial translocation into the heart tissue required the pneumococcal adhesin CbpA and the host ligands Laminin receptor (LR) and Platelet-activating factor receptor. Immunization of mice with a fusion construct of CbpA or the LR binding domain of CbpA with the pneumolysin toxoid L460D protected against microlesion formation. We conclude that microlesion formation may contribute to the acute and long-term adverse cardiac events seen in humans with IPD.

Chronic binge alcohol administration impairs glucose-insulin dynamics and decreases adiponectin in asymptomatic simian immunodeficiency virus-infected macaques.

Alcohol use disorders (AUDs) frequently exist among persons living with HIV/AIDS. Chronic alcohol consumption, HIV infection, and antiretroviral therapy (ART) are independently associated with impairments in glucose-insulin dynamics. Previous studies from our laboratory have shown that chronic binge alcohol (CBA) administration decreases body mass index, attenuates weight gain, and accentuates skeletal muscle wasting at end-stage disease in non-ART-treated simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected male rhesus macaques. The aim of this study was to investigate whether CBA and ART alone or in combination alter body composition or glucose-insulin dynamics in SIV-infected male rhesus macaques during the asymptomatic phase of SIV infection. Daily CBA or sucrose (SUC) administration was initiated 3 mo before intrarectal SIV inoculation and continued until the study end point at 11 mo post-SIV infection. ART or placebo was initiated 2.5 mo after SIV infection and continued until study end point. Four treatment groups (SUC/SIV ± ART and CBA/SIV ± ART) were studied. CBA/SIV macaques had significantly decreased circulating adiponectin and resistin levels relative to SUC/SIV macaques and reduced disposition index and acute insulin response to glucose, insulin, and C-peptide release during frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test, irrespective of ART status. No statistically significant differences were observed in homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance values, body weight, total body fat, abdominal fat, or total lean mass or bone health among the four groups. These findings demonstrate CBA-mediated impairments in glucose-insulin dynamics and adipokine profile in asymptomatic SIV-infected macaques, irrespective of ART.

Alcohol Vapor Inhalation as a Model of Alcohol-Induced Organ Disease.

BACKGROUND: Chronic intermittent ethanol vapor (CIEV) exposure has been used extensively to produce rodent models of alcohol dependence, but unlike other models of alcohol abuse, CIEV has not been assessed as a model of end-organ damage. The purpose of this study was to characterize the effects of CIEV on peripheral organ systems affected by alcohol abuse, including the liver, lungs, and cardiovascular system. METHODS: Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to daily CIEV for a period of 8 weeks (14HR ON/10HR OFF), producing blood alcohol levels of ~200 mg/dl. Controls were exposed to room air. After 8 weeks, echocardiography was performed to assess cardiac function. Indices of liver injury (alanine and aspartate aminotransferases [ALT and AST]; cytochrome p450 2E1 [CYP2E1]; alcohol dehydrogenase [ADH]; Oil Red O and triglyceride content; lipid peroxidation; inflammatory cytokine expression; and macrophage infiltration), and lung inflammatory cell count, proinflammatory cytokine expression, and lipid peroxidation were measured. RESULTS: Left ventricular posterior wall thickness was significantly decreased, and systolic blood pressure was significantly elevated by CIEV compared with air controls. CIEV led to a significant increase in plasma ALT and triglycerides compared with room air controls. CIEV did not affect liver triglyceride content, lipid staining or peroxidation, but increased CYP2E1 and chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2) protein expression, while decreasing ADH expression. CIEV significantly increased numbers of both polymorphonuclear neutrophils and lymphocytes in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, indicative of pulmonary inflammation. However, CIEV did not produce significant changes in lung mass, pulmonary lipid peroxidation, inflammatory cytokine expression, or edema. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that CIEV produces hepatic, pulmonary, and cardiovascular effects in rats similar to those found in other models of chronic alcohol administration. Alcohol vapor administration is a novel method of alcohol-induced tissue injury with high potential for widespread use in alcohol toxicology research.

Ethanol impairs mucosal immunity against Streptococcus pneumoniae infection by disrupting interleukin 17 gene expression.

Acute ethanol intoxication suppresses the host immune responses against Streptococcus pneumoniae. As interleukin 17 (IL-17) is a critical cytokine in host defense against extracellular pathogens, including S. pneumoniae, we hypothesized that ethanol impairs mucosal immunity against this pathogen by disrupting IL-17 production or IL-17 receptor (IL-17R) signaling. A chronic ethanol feeding model in simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected rhesus macaques and acute ethanol intoxication in a murine model were used. Transcriptome analysis of bronchial brushes in the nonhuman primate model showed downregulation of the expression of IL-17-regulated chemokines in ethanol-fed animals, a finding also replicated in the murine model. Surprisingly, recombinant CXCL1 and CXCL5 but not IL-17 or IL-23 plus IL-1ß rescued bacterial burden in the ethanol group to control levels. Taken together, the results of this study suggest that ethanol impairs IL-17-mediated chemokine production in the lung. Thus, exogenous luminal restoration of IL-17-related chemokines, CXCL1 and CXCL5, improves host defenses against S. pneumoniae.

Chronic Binge Alcohol Administration Increases Intestinal T-Cell Proliferation and Turnover in Rhesus Macaques.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol use results in changes in intestinal epithelial cell turnover and microbial translocation, yet less is known about the consequences on intestinal lymphocytes in the gut. Here, we compared T-cell subsets in the intestine of macaques before and after 3 months of chronic alcohol administration to examine the effects of alcohol on intestinal T-cell subsets. METHODS: Rhesus macaques received either alcohol or isocaloric sucrose as a control treatment daily over a 3-month period via indwelling gastric catheters. Intestinal lymphocyte subsets were identified in biopsy samples by flow cytometry. Twenty-four hours prior to sampling, animals were inoculated with bromo-deoxyuridine (BrdU) to assess lymphocyte proliferation. Immunohistochemistry was performed on tissue samples to quantitate CD3+ cells. RESULTS: Animals receiving alcohol had increased rates of intestinal T-cell turnover of both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells as reflected by increased BrdU incorporation. However, absolute numbers of T cells were decreased in intestinal tissues as evidenced by immunohistochemistry for total CD3 expression per mm(2) intestinal lamina propria in tissue sections. Combining immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry data showed that the absolute numbers of CD8+ T cells were significantly decreased, whereas absolute numbers of total CD4+ T cells were minimally decreased. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, these data indicate that alcohol exposure to the small intestine results in marked loss of CD3+ T cells, accompanied by marked increases in CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell proliferation and turnover, which we speculate is an attempt to maintain stable numbers of T cells in tissues. This suggests that alcohol results in accelerated T-cell turnover in the gut, which may contribute to premature T-cell senescence. Further, these data indicate that chronic alcohol administration results in increased levels of HIV target cells (proliferating CD4+ T cells) that may support higher levels of HIV replication in intestinal tissues.

Chronic binge alcohol consumption alters myogenic gene expression and reduces in vitro myogenic differentiation potential of myoblasts from rhesus macaques.

Chronic alcohol abuse is associated with skeletal muscle myopathy. Previously, we demonstrated that chronic binge alcohol (CBA) consumption by rhesus macaques accentuates skeletal muscle wasting at end-stage of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection. A proinflammatory, prooxidative milieu and enhanced ubiquitin proteasome activity were identified as possible mechanisms leading to loss of skeletal muscle. The possibility that impaired regenerative capacity, as reflected by the ability of myoblasts derived from satellite cell (SCs) to differentiate into myotubes has not been examined. We hypothesized that the inflammation and oxidative stress in skeletal muscle from CBA animals impair the differentiation capacity of myoblasts to form new myofibers in in vitro assays. We isolated primary myoblasts from the quadriceps femoris of rhesus macaques that were administered CBA or isocaloric sucrose (SUC) for 19 mo. Proliferation and differentiation potential of cultured myoblasts were examined in vitro. Myoblasts from the CBA group had significantly reduced PAX7, MYOD1, MYOG, MYF5, and MEF2C expression. This was associated with decreased myotube formation as evidenced by Jenner-Giemsa staining and myonuclei fusion index. No significant difference in the proliferative ability, cell cycle distribution, or autophagy was detected between myoblasts isolated from CBA and SUC groups. Together, these results reflect marked dysregulation of myoblast myogenic gene expression and myotube formation, which we interpret as evidence of impaired skeletal muscle regenerative capacity in CBA-administered macaques. The contribution of this mechanism to alcoholic myopathy warrants further investigation.

Chronic binge alcohol consumption does not diminish effectiveness of continuous antiretroviral suppression of viral load in simian immunodeficiency virus-infected macaques.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol use disorders (AUDs) are a frequent comorbidity in a large percentage of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA). PLWHA with comorbid AUDs are consistently found to perform poorly at most levels of the HIV treatment cascade, resulting in a higher likelihood of virologic nonsuppression. This has been partly attributed to lower rates of persistence with and adherence to antiretroviral therapies (ART). Focus groups of in-care PLWHA identify the need to suspend ART on drinking days because of the potential for toxicity and/or lack of therapeutic effectiveness. The aim of this study was to examine whether chronic binge alcohol (CBA) consumption decreases the effectiveness of uninterrupted ART, specifically that of nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI) tenofovir and emtricitabine in suppressing viral replication, or results in drug toxicity in simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected rhesus macaques. METHODS: Daily CBA or isocaloric sucrose (SUC) administration was initiated 3 months prior to intrarectal SIVmac251 inoculation and continued throughout the study period. ART was initiated 2.5 months after SIV infection and continued through the study period. RESULTS: CBA administration did not prevent or delay the ART-mediated reduction in viral load. Following ART, circulating levels of total protein and creatinine were significantly higher than baseline values in both SUC- and CBA-treated animals, but still within a normal range. No evidence of ART toxicity was observed in either CBA- or SUC-administered macaques. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that CBA does not attenuate effectiveness of NRTI suppression of viral load, nor does it appear to interact with NRTI to produce toxicity during the initial 2 months of treatment. We conclude that while efforts to reduce AUD in PLWHA should be a priority, counseling on the importance of adherence to ART even on drinking days should also be promoted.

Chronic binge alcohol administration accentuates expression of pro-fibrotic and inflammatory genes in the skeletal muscle of simian immunodeficiency virus-infected macaques.

BACKGROUND: Chronic binge alcohol (CBA) administration exacerbates skeletal muscle (SKM) wasting at the terminal stage of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection in rhesus macaques. This is associated with a pro-inflammatory and oxidative milieu which we have previously shown to be associated with a disrupted balance between anabolic and catabolic mechanisms. In this study, we attempted to characterize the SKM gene expression signature in CBA-administered SIV-infected macaques, using the same animals from the previous study. METHODS: Administration of intragastric alcohol or sucrose to male rhesus macaques began 3 months prior to SIV infection and continued throughout the duration of study. Gene transcriptomes of SKM excised at necropsy (~10 months post-SIV) from healthy na\xEFve control (Control), sucrose-administered, SIV-infected (SUC-SIV), and CBA-administered, SIV-infected (CBA-SIV) macaques were evaluated in microarray data sets. The Protein Analysis Through Evolutionary Relationships classification tool was used to filter differentially regulated genes based on their predicted function into select biological processes relevant to SKM wasting which were inflammation, extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, and metabolism. RESULTS: In total, 1,124 genes were differentially regulated between SUC-SIV and Controls, 2,022 genes were differentially expressed between the CBA-SIV and Controls, and 836 genes were differentially expressed between CBA-SIV and SUC-SIV animals. The relevance of altered gene expression was reflected in the up-regulation of pro-inflammatory CCL-2, CCL-8, CX3CL1, SELE, HP, and TNFRS10A mRNA expression. In addition, ECM remodeling was reflected in the up-regulation of TIMP-1, MMP 2, and MMP 9 mRNA expression and transforming growth factor-beta 1 protein expression. In addition, hydroxyproline content and picrosirius staining reflected increased collagen deposition in the CBA-SIV muscle tissue. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the study demonstrate SKM inflammation as an important underlying mechanism for muscle wasting. In addition, the study provides evidence of SKM fibrotic transformation as a factor in CBA-induced accentuation of SIV-associated muscle wasting.

Dysregulation of myelopoiesis by chronic alcohol administration during early SIV infection of rhesus macaques.

BACKGROUND: Chronic alcohol intoxication suppresses immune function and increases osteoporosis risk suggesting bone-tissue cytotoxicity. Human immunodeficiency virus infection leads to similar impairments. This study investigated the effects of chronic alcohol administration during the early stage of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection on hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) and their differentiated progeny in the bone marrow and peripheral blood of rhesus macaques. METHODS: Rhesus macaques were administered alcohol or sucrose daily for a period of 3 months prior to intrarectal inoculation with 250 TCID50 of SIVmac251 . Bone marrow aspirates and blood samples were taken prior to and 2 weeks after SIV infection. Bone marrow cells (BMCs) were assessed using flow cytometric phenotyping for upstream HSPCs and for differentiated cells of the monocyte-granulocyte lineages. Likewise, cells were quantitated in peripheral blood. RESULTS: Of the bone marrow HSPCs, only the common lymphoid progenitor (CLP) was altered by alcohol administration pre-SIV (38 ± 9.4/10(6) BMCs vs. 226 ± 64.1/10(6) BMCs, sucrose vs. alcohol). Post-SIV, the frequency of CLPs in the bone marrow of alcohol-administered macaques decreased compared with the sucrose-administered macaques (107 ± 47.6/10(6) BMCs vs. 43 ± 16.3/10(6) BMCs). However, marrow mature cells of the monocyte lineage, specifically macrophages and osteoclast progenitors, were increased by both chronic alcohol administration and SIV infection (287% and 662%, respectively). As expected, mature cells such as granulocytes (polymorphonuclear cells), B cells, and CD4+ T cells in the peripheral blood were decreased by SIV infection (37 to 62% decline from preinfection), but not affected after 3 months of chronic alcohol administration. CONCLUSIONS: Chronic alcohol administration disrupts myelomonocytic development in the bone marrow during the early period of SIV infection promoting macrophage and osteoclast lineages. We predict this shift in CLP:macrophage/osteoclast balance creates an environment that favors bone resorption and immunosuppression.

Alcohol impairs the myeloid proliferative response to bacteremia in mice by inhibiting the stem cell antigen-1/ERK pathway.

Enhancement of stem cell Ag-1 (Sca-1) expression by myeloid precursors promotes the granulopoietic response to bacterial infection. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. ERK pathway activation strongly enhances proliferation of hematopoietic progenitor cells. In this study, we investigated the role of Sca-1 in promoting ERK-dependent myeloid lineage proliferation and the effects of alcohol on this process. Thirty minutes after i.p. injection of alcohol, mice received i.v. challenge with 5 × 10(7) Escherichia coli for 8 or 24 h. A subset of mice received i.v. BrdU injection 20 h after challenge. Bacteremia increased Sca-1 expression, ERK activation, and proliferation of myeloid and granulopoietic precursors. Alcohol administration suppressed this response and impaired granulocyte production. Sca-1 expression positively correlated with ERK activation and cell cycling, but negatively correlated with myeloperoxidase content in granulopoietic precursors. Alcohol intoxication suppressed ERK activation in granulopoietic precursors and proliferation of these cells during bacteremia. Granulopoietic precursors in Sca-1(-/-) mice failed to activate ERK signaling and could not increase granulomacrophagic CFU activity following bacteremia. These data indicate that Sca-1 expression promotes ERK-dependent myeloid cell proliferation during bacteremia. Suppression of this response could represent an underlying mechanism for developing myelosuppression in alcohol-abusing hosts with severe bacterial infection.

Effect of bacterial pneumonia on lung simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) replication in alcohol consuming SIV-infected rhesus macaques.

BACKGROUND: Opportunistic infections in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected persons have been shown to increase the rate of HIV replication. In populations where prophylaxis against Pneumocystis pneumonia is utilized, bacterial pneumonia is now the leading cause of lower respiratory tract infection in HIV+ patients. Our prior studies have shown that chronic alcohol consumption in demarcated simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected rhesus macaques increases plasma viral load set point and accelerates progression to end-stage acquired immune deficiency syndrome. While chronic alcohol abuse is well known to increase the incidence and severity of bacterial pneumonia, the impact of alcohol consumption on local and systemic SIV/HIV burden during lung infection is unknown. Therefore, we utilized the macaque SIV infection model to examine the effect of chronic ethanol (EtOH) feeding on SIV burden during the course of pulmonary infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae, the most commonly identified etiology of bacterial pneumonia in HIV+ and HIV- persons in developed countries. METHODS: Alcohol was administered starting 3 months before SIVmac251 inoculation to the end of the study via an indwelling intragastric catheter to achieve a plasma alcohol concentration of 50 to 60 mM. Control animals received isocaloric sucrose. Four months after SIV infection, the right lung was inoculated with 2 × 10(6) CFU S. pneumoniae. RESULTS: Leukocyte recruitment into the lung, pulmonary bacterial clearance, and clinical course were similar between EtOH and control groups. While plasma SIV viral load was similar between groups postpneumonia, chronic EtOH-fed macaques showed a prolonged increase in SIV RNA in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Alveolar macrophages isolated from EtOH-fed macaques 1 day post-pneumonia showed greater nuclear factor kappa beta (NF-κB) activation. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that chronic EtOH feeding results in enhanced local, but not systemic, SIV replication following pneumococcal pneumonia. Increased NF-κB activity in the setting of chronic EtOH ingestion may play a mechanistic role in this observation.

Alcohol suppresses the granulopoietic response to pulmonary Streptococcus pneumoniae infection with enhancement of STAT3 signaling.

Enhanced granulopoietic activity is crucial for host defense against bacterial pneumonia. Alcohol impairs this response. The underlying mechanisms remain obscure. G-CSF produced by infected lung tissue plays a key role in stimulating bone marrow granulopoiesis. This study investigated the effects of alcohol on G-CSF signaling in the regulation of marrow myeloid progenitor cell proliferation in mice with Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia. Chronic alcohol consumption plus acute alcohol intoxication suppressed the increase in blood granulocyte counts following intrapulmonary challenge with S. pneumoniae. This suppression was associated with a significant decrease in bone marrow granulopoietic progenitor cell proliferation. Alcohol treatment significantly enhanced STAT3 phosphorylation in bone marrow cells of animals challenged with S. pneumoniae. In vitro experiments showed that G-CSF-induced activation of STAT3-p27(Kip1) pathway in murine myeloid progenitor cell line 32D-G-CSFR cells was markedly enhanced by alcohol exposure. Alcohol dose dependently inhibited G-CSF-stimulated 32D-G-CSFR cell proliferation. This impairment of myeloid progenitor cell proliferation was not attenuated by inhibition of alcohol metabolism through either the alcohol dehydrogenase pathway or the cytochrome P450 system. These data suggest that alcohol enhances G-CSF-associated STAT3-p27(Kip1) signaling, which impairs granulopoietic progenitor cell proliferation by inducing cell cycling arrest and facilitating their terminal differentiation during the granulopoietic response to pulmonary infection.

Ethanol upregulates glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper expression and modulates cellular inflammatory responses in lung epithelial cells.

Alcohol abuse is associated with immunosuppressive and infectious sequelae. Particularly, alcoholics are more susceptible to pulmonary infections. In this report, gene transcriptional profiles of primary human airway epithelial cells exposed to varying doses of alcohol (0, 50, and 100 mM) were obtained. Comparison of gene transcription levels in 0 mM alcohol treatments with those in 50 mM alcohol treatments resulted in 2 genes being upregulated and 16 genes downregulated by at least 2-fold. Moreover, 0 mM and 100 mM alcohol exposure led to the upregulation of 14 genes and downregulation of 157 genes. Among the upregulated genes, glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper (GILZ) responded to alcohol in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, GILZ protein levels also correlated with this transcriptional pattern. Lentiviral expression of GILZ small interfering RNA in human airway epithelial cells diminished the alcohol-induced upregulation, confirming that GILZ is indeed an alcohol-responsive gene. Gene silencing of GILZ in A549 cells resulted in secretion of significantly higher amounts of inflammatory cytokines in response to IL-1beta stimulation. The GILZ-silenced cells were more resistant to alcohol-mediated suppression of cytokine secretion. Further data demonstrated that the glucocorticoid receptor is involved in the regulation of GILZ by alcohol. Because GILZ is a key glucocorticoid-responsive factor mediating the anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive actions of steroids, we propose that similar signaling pathways may play a role in the anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects of alcohol.

Disrupted anabolic and catabolic processes may contribute to alcohol-accentuated SAIDS-associated wasting.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol abuse is a comorbid factor in many human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients. Previously, we demonstrated that chronic binge alcohol accentuates loss of body mass at terminal stage of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection. The purpose of this study was to investigate changes in pathways that may contribute to muscle wasting in chronic binge alcohol-fed SIV-infected macaques. METHODS: The impact of chronic binge alcohol during SIV infection on insulin signaling and the ubiquitin (Ub)-proteasome system-regulators of protein synthesis and degradation-was examined in SIV-infected macaques. RESULTS: SIV infection induced an inflammatory and pro-oxidative milieu in skeletal muscle, which was associated with decreased insulin-stimulated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI-3k) activity and upregulated gene expression of mTOR and atrogin-1, and protein expression of Ub-proteasome system 19S base. Chronic binge alcohol accentuated the skeletal muscle pro-oxidative milieu and 19S base expression. Additionally, chronic binge alcohol increased skeletal muscle protein expression of protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B (a negative regulator of insulin signaling) and 19S proteasome regulator non-ATPase (Rpn) 6 subunit and Rpn12, and suppressed PI-3K activity. Animals that were alcohol-fed and SIV-infected for >15 months had increased Ub-proteasome system activity. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest negative modulation of insulin signaling coupled with enhanced Ub-proteasome system activity may be central mechanisms underlying chronic binge alcohol-induced accentuation of SIV-associated muscle wasting.

Differential flux of macrophage inflammatory protein-2 and cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant from the lung after intrapulmonary delivery.

Previously we showed that cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant (CINC), but not macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2), is detected in plasma after intratracheal challenge with LPS or the particular chemokines. To further understand the differences between CINC and MIP-2 flux from the lung, we attempted to detect the two chemokines in isolated erythrocytes and leukocytes in rats after intratracheal LPS challenge. In response to intratracheal LPS, we found both CINC and MIP-2 in isolated erythrocytes and leukocytes, suggesting that MIP-2 produced in the LPS-challenged lung entered the circulation like CINC. To assess the relative flux of CINC and MIP-2 from the intra-alveolar compartment into the blood, experiments were performed in rats implanted with vascular catheters in which both chemokines were either injected intratracheally (5 µg) or infused intravenously (20 ng/min) and subsequently measured in plasma or with the cellular elements. Both chemokines appeared in the blood following intratracheal injection, with CINC detected in plasma and cells but MIP-2 only detected in the cellular fraction of blood. Infusion of both chemokines allowed detection of MIP-2 and CINC in plasma and with the cellular elements, which allowed us to calculate clearance for each chemokine and to assess CINC and MIP-2 rates of appearance (Ra) following intratracheal injection. On the basis of plasma and whole blood clearance, CINC Ra was more than sevenfold and fourfold higher, respectively, than MIP-2 Ra. This analysis indicates that differences exist in the rate of flux of CINC and MIP-2 across the epithelial/endothelial barrier of the lung, despite similar molecular size.

Divergent roles of IL-23 and IL-12 in host defense against Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Interleukin (IL)-23 is a heterodimeric cytokine that shares the identical p40 subunit as IL-12 but exhibits a unique p19 subunit similar to IL-12 p35. IL-12/23 p40, interferon gamma (IFN-gamma), and IL-17 are critical for host defense against Klebsiella pneumoniae. In vitro, K. pneumoniae-pulsed dendritic cell culture supernatants elicit T cell IL-17 production in a IL-23-dependent manner. However, the importance of IL-23 during in vivo pulmonary challenge is unknown. We show that IL-12/23 p40-deficient mice are exquisitely sensitive to intrapulmonary K. pneumoniae inoculation and that IL-23 p19-/-, IL-17R-/-, and IL-12 p35-/- mice also show increased susceptibility to infection. p40-/- mice fail to generate pulmonary IFN-gamma, IL-17, or IL-17F responses to infection, whereas p35-/- mice show normal IL-17 and IL-17F induction but reduced IFN-gamma. Lung IL-17 and IL-17F production in p19-/- mice was dramatically reduced, and this strain showed substantial mortality from a sublethal dose of bacteria (10(3) CFU), despite normal IFN-gamma induction. Administration of IL-17 restored bacterial control in p19-/- mice and to a lesser degree in p40-/- mice, suggesting an additional host defense requirement for IFN-gamma in this strain. Together, these data demonstrate independent requirements for IL-12 and IL-23 in pulmonary host defense against K. pneumoniae, the former of which is required for IFN-gamma expression and the latter of which is required for IL-17 production.

Suppression of the stem cell antigen-1 response and granulocyte lineage expansion by alcohol during septicemia.

OBJECTIVE: Granulocytopenia frequently occurs in alcohol abusers with severe bacterial infection, which strongly correlates with poor clinical outcome. Knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying the granulopoietic response to bacterial infection remains limited. This study investigated the involvement of stem cell antigen-1 expression by granulocyte lineage-committed progenitors in the granulopoietic response to septicemia and how alcohol affected this response. DESIGN: : Laboratory investigation. SETTING: University laboratory. SUBJECTS: Male Balb/c mice. INTERVENTIONS: Thirty mins after intraperitoneal injection of alcohol (20% ethanol in saline at 5 g of ethanol/kg) or saline, mice received an intravenous Escherichia coli challenge. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: E. coli septicemia activated stem cell antigen-1 expression by marrow immature granulocyte differentiation antigen-1 precursors which correlated with an increase in proliferation, granulocyte macrophage colony-forming unit production, and expansion of this granulopoietic precursor cell pool. Acute alcohol treatment suppressed stem cell antigen-1 activation and inhibited the infection-induced increases in proliferation, granulocyte macrophage colony-forming unit production, and expansion the of immature granulocyte differentiation antigen-1 precursor cell population. Consequently, recovery of the marrow mature granulocyte differentiation antigen-1 cell population after E. coli challenge was impaired. Stem cell antigen-1 was induced in sorted granulocyte differentiation antigen-1, stem cell antigen-1' cells by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated C-Jun kinase activation that was also inhibited by alcohol. Furthermore, stem cell antigen-1 knockout mice failed to expand the marrow immature granulocyte differentiation antigen-1 cell pool and demonstrated fewer newly produced granulocytes in the circulation after the E. coli challenge. CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol suppresses the stem cell antigen-1 response in granulocyte lineage-committed precursors and restricts granulocyte production during septicemia, which may serve as a novel mechanism underlying impaired host defense in alcohol abusers.

Acute alcohol intoxication inhibits the lineage- c-kit+ Sca-1+ cell response to Escherichia coli bacteremia.

Alcohol abuse predisposes the host to bacterial infections. In response to bacterial infection, the bone marrow hematopoietic activity shifts toward granulocyte production, which is critical for enhancing host defense. This study investigated the hematopoietic precursor cell response to bacteremia and how alcohol affects this response. Acute alcohol intoxication was induced in BALB/c mice 30 min before initiation of Escherichia coli bacteremia. Bacteremia caused a significant increase in the number of bone marrow lineage (lin(-))-c-kit(+)Sca-1(+) cells. Marrow lin(-)c-kit(+)Sca-1(+) cells isolated from bacteremic mice showed an increase in CFU-granulocyte/macrophage activity compared with controls. In addition to enhanced proliferation of lin(-)c-kit(+)Sca-1(+) cells as reflected by BrdU incorporation, phenotypic inversion of lin(-)c-kit(+)Sca-1(+)Sca-1(-) cells primarily accounted for the rapid increase in marrow lin(-)c-kit(+)Sca-1(+) cells following bacteremia. Bacteremia increased plasma concentration of TNF-alpha. Culture of marrow lin(-)c-kit(+)Sca-1(+)Sca-1(-) cells with murine rTNF-alpha for 24 h caused a dose-dependent increase in conversion of these cells to lin(-)c-kit(+)Sca-1(+) cells. Sca-1 mRNA expression by the cultured cells was also up-regulated following TNF-alpha stimulation. Acute alcohol intoxication inhibited the increase in the number of lin(-)c-kit(+)Sca-1(+) cells in the bone marrow after E. coli infection. Alcohol impeded the increase in BrdU incorporation into marrow lin(-)c-kit(+)Sca-1(+) cells in response to bacteremia. Alcohol also suppressed the plasma TNF-alpha response to bacteremia and inhibited TNF-alpha-induced phenotypic inversion of lin(-)c-kit(+)Sca-1(+)Sca-1(-) cells in vitro. These data show that alcohol inhibits the hematopoietic precursor cell response to bacteremia, which may serve as one mechanism underlying the impaired host defense in alcohol abusers with severe bacterial infections.