The tumour microenvironment shapes dendritic cell plasticity in a human organotypic melanoma culture.

The tumour microenvironment (TME) forms a major obstacle in effective cancer treatment and for clinical success of immunotherapy. Conventional co-cultures have shed light onto multiple aspects of cancer immunobiology, but they are limited by the lack of physiological complexity. We develop a human organotypic skin melanoma culture (OMC) that allows real-time study of host-malignant cell interactions within a multicellular tissue architecture. By co-culturing decellularized dermis with keratinocytes, fibroblasts and immune cells in the presence of melanoma cells, we generate a reconstructed TME that closely resembles tumour growth as observed in human lesions and supports cell survival and function. We demonstrate that the OMC is suitable and outperforms conventional 2D co-cultures for the study of TME-imprinting mechanisms. Within the OMC, we observe the tumour-driven conversion of cDC2s into CD14+ DCs, characterized by an immunosuppressive phenotype. The OMC provides a valuable approach to study how a TME affects the immune system.

Differential metabolic effects of oral butyrate treatment in lean versus metabolic syndrome subjects.

BACKGROUND: Gut microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) have been associated with beneficial metabolic effects. However, the direct effect of oral butyrate on metabolic parameters in humans has never been studied. In this first in men pilot study, we thus treated both lean and metabolic syndrome male subjects with oral sodium butyrate and investigated the effect on metabolism. METHODS: Healthy lean males (n = 9) and metabolic syndrome males (n = 10) were treated with oral 4 g of sodium butyrate daily for 4 weeks. Before and after treatment, insulin sensitivity was determined by a two-step hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp using [6,6-2H2]-glucose. Brown adipose tissue (BAT) uptake of glucose was visualized using 18F-FDG PET-CT. Fecal SCFA and bile acid concentrations as well as microbiota composition were determined before and after treatment. RESULTS: Oral butyrate had no effect on plasma and fecal butyrate levels after treatment, but did alter other SCFAs in both plasma and feces. Moreover, only in healthy lean subjects a significant improvement was observed in both peripheral (median Rd: from 71 to 82 µmol/kg min, p < 0.05) and hepatic insulin sensitivity (EGP suppression from 75 to 82% p < 0.05). Although BAT activity was significantly higher at baseline in lean (SUVmax: 12.4 ± 1.8) compared with metabolic syndrome subjects (SUVmax: 0.3 ± 0.8, p < 0.01), no significant effect following butyrate treatment on BAT was observed in either group (SUVmax lean to 13.3 ± 2.4 versus metabolic syndrome subjects to 1.2 ± 4.1). CONCLUSIONS: Oral butyrate treatment beneficially affects glucose metabolism in lean but not metabolic syndrome subjects, presumably due to an altered SCFA handling in insulin-resistant subjects. Although preliminary, these first in men findings argue against oral butyrate supplementation as treatment for glucose regulation in human subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

The innervation of tandem muscle spindles in the cat neck.

Patterns of innervation were examined in tandem muscle spindles teased from silver-stained muscles of the cat neck. Each tandem spindle was composed of two or more encapsulated receptors linked in series by a shared bag2 fiber. In most tandem spindles, two different types of encapsulation were identified according to differences in their intrafusal fiber content. One type, the b1b2c unit, contained typical bag1, bag2, and chain fibers and was structurally similar to single spindles described in other cat muscles. Each b1b2c unit contained a single primary sensory ending and 1-6 secondary endings. Fusimotor innervation was supplied by many axons. Some fusimotor axons ended in trail ramifications on bag2 and chain fibers, others ended in plates on the bag1 or long chain fiber. The other type of tandem encapsulation, the b2c unit, had only bag2 and chain fibers in its intrafusal fiber bundle. The b2c unit was usually supplied by only one sensory axon that ended on the nucleated part of the intrafusal fiber bundle. This single ending had a more variable terminal morphology than the primary ending in b1b2c units. A few b2c units (3/49) were also supplied by a secondary ending. The fusimotor innervation of the b2c unit was relatively simple. A single pole of the b2c unit was usually supplied by only one to three axons, all ending in trail ramifications. No plate endings were found in b2c units. These morphological specializations suggest that b1b2c and b2c units in tandem spindles differ in both their transductive and fusimotor mechanisms. Thus, the tandem spindle is a specialized structure that may provide additional proprioceptive information beyond that available from single muscle spindles.

Sarcoidosis of the liver: to treat or not to treat?

INTRODUCTION: Sarcoidosis is a non-caseating, granulomatous disease of incompletely understood aetiology that can affect nearly all organs including the liver. Hepatic involvement is thought to occur in 50-90% of patients but may remain undiagnosed in many cases. Evidence-based guidelines for the treatment of sarcoidosis of the liver are lacking. Patients usually receive no treatment or are treated pragmatically with corticosteroids. However, treatment with systemic corticosteroids has had mixed results. The use of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) in the treatment of sarcoidosis-associated cholestasis has been reported by several groups, and is empirically prescribed to sarcoidosis patients with hepatic involvement. METHODS: The effect of UDCA on symptoms and serum liver tests was investigated in a retrospective cohort study in which hepatic sarcoidosis patients had received either no treatment, prednisolone treatment or UDCA treatment. For all patients, laboratory results on ASAT, ALAT, AP and GGT were collected. Patients described the severity of their symptoms before and after treatment on a numerical scale. RESULTS: A total of 17 patients participated in the study. Serum liver tests in the group treated with UDCA had improved as compared with the other groups. Also, symptomatic improvement of pruritus and fatigue was reported in the group treated with UDCA. CONCLUSION: This retrospective cohort study supports the empirical first-line use of UDCA in the treatment of sarcoidosis of the liver, especially in symptomatic patients. Prospective randomised trials are needed to adequately support this concept.

Compartmentalization of motor units in the cat neck muscle, biventer cervicis.

1. The neck muscle biventer cervicis is supplied by five separate nerve bundles that originate from segments C2-C5 and enter the muscle at different rostrocaudal levels. We have used the glycogen-depletion method to investigate the distribution of muscle fibers supplied by each nerve bundle and also the extent of motor-unit territories supplied by single motoneurons in the C3 segment. 2. Prolonged intermittent stimulation of each nerve bundle produced glycogen depletion in a compartment of muscle fibers that ran only a fraction of the whole-muscle length. The depleted compartment was separated by tendinous inscriptions from adjacent, serially arranged compartments that were supplied by different nerve bundles. Thus the muscle was divided into five in-series compartments, arranged in the same rostrocaudal sequence as the nerves by which they were supplied. 3. Six fast, glycolytic (FG) and five fast, oxidative-glycolytic (FOG) motor units were depleted by repetitive intracellular stimulation of their antidromically identified motoneurons in the C3 segment. The fibers of each motor unit were confined to a striplike subvolume whose cross-sectional area was only 20-40% of that for the whole compartment in which it was located. Single motor units contained an average of 408 extrafusal fibers (range: 262-582 fibers), and these were distributed with an average density of 20 fibers/mm2 in cross sections through their motor domains. No significant differences were found between the numbers or densities of fibers in FG and FOG motor units. 4. The specialized in-series organization of compartments has functional implications because the forces generated by one compartment of motor units must be transmitted through other in-series compartments of muscle fibers rather than directly onto skeletal attachments. The confined distribution of muscle fibers belonging to a single motor unit suggests that an additional level of organization may exist within individual compartments. The implications of these features for the physiological behavior and neural control of biventer cervicis are discussed.