Disparities in Breastfeeding: Impact on Maternal and Child Health Outcomes and Costs.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the disease burden and associated costs attributable to suboptimal breastfeeding rates among non-Hispanic blacks (NHBs), Hispanics, and non-Hispanic whites (NHWs). STUDY DESIGN: Using current literature on associations between breastfeeding and health outcomes for 8 pediatric and 5 maternal diseases, we used Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate 2 hypothetical cohorts of US women followed from age 15 to 70 years and their infants followed from birth to age 20 years. Accounting for differences in parity, maternal age, and birth weights by race/ethnicity, we examined disease outcomes and costs using 2012 breastfeeding rates by race/ethnicity and outcomes that would be expected if 90% of infants were breastfed according to recommendations for exclusive and continued breastfeeding duration. RESULTS: Suboptimal breastfeeding is associated with a greater burden of disease among NHB and Hispanic populations. Compared with a NHW population, a NHB population had 1.7 times the number of excess cases of acute otitis media attributable to suboptimal breastfeeding (95% CI 1.7-1.7), 3.3 times the number of excess cases of necrotizing enterocolitis (95% CI 2.9-3.7), and 2.2 times the number of excess child deaths (95% CI 1.6-2.8). Compared with a NHW population, a Hispanic population had 1.4 times the number of excess cases of gastrointestinal infection (95% CI 1.4-1.4) and 1.5 times the number of excess child deaths (95% CI 1.2-1.9). CONCLUSIONS: Racial/ethnic disparities in breastfeeding have important social, economic, and health implications, assuming a causal relationship between breastfeeding and health outcomes.

Suboptimal breastfeeding in the United States: Maternal and pediatric health outcomes and costs.

The aim of this study was to quantify the excess cases of pediatric and maternal disease, death, and costs attributable to suboptimal breastfeeding rates in the United States. Using the current literature on the associations between breastfeeding and health outcomes for nine pediatric and five maternal diseases, we created Monte Carlo simulations modeling a hypothetical cohort of U.S. women followed from age 15 to age 70 years and their children from birth to age 20 years. We examined disease outcomes using (a) 2012 breastfeeding rates and (b) assuming that 90% of infants were breastfed according to medical recommendations. We measured annual excess cases, deaths, and associated costs, in 2014 dollars, using a 2% discount rate. Annual excess deaths attributable to suboptimal breastfeeding total 3,340 (95% confidence interval [1,886 to 4,785]), 78% of which are maternal due to myocardial infarction (n = 986), breast cancer (n = 838), and diabetes (n = 473). Excess pediatric deaths total 721, mostly due to Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (n = 492) and necrotizing enterocolitis (n = 190). Medical costs total $3.0 billion, 79% of which are maternal. Costs of premature death total $14.2 billion. The number of women needed to breastfeed as medically recommended to prevent an infant gastrointestinal infection is 0.8; acute otitis media, 3; hospitalization for lower respiratory tract infection, 95; maternal hypertension, 55; diabetes, 162; and myocardial infarction, 235. For every 597 women who optimally breastfeed, one maternal or child death is prevented. Policies to increase optimal breastfeeding could result in substantial public health gains. Breastfeeding has a larger impact on women's health than previously appreciated.

Impact of Optimized Breastfeeding on the Costs of Necrotizing Enterocolitis in Extremely Low Birthweight Infants.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate risk of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) for extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants as a function of preterm formula (PF) and maternal milk intake and calculate the impact of suboptimal feeding on the incidence and costs of NEC. STUDY DESIGN: We used aORs derived from the Glutamine Trial to perform Monte Carlo simulation of a cohort of ELBW infants under current suboptimal feeding practices, compared with a theoretical cohort in which 90% of infants received at least 98% human milk. RESULTS: NEC incidence among infants receiving ≥98% human milk was 1.3%; 11.1% among infants fed only PF; and 8.2% among infants fed a mixed diet (P = .002). In adjusted models, compared with infants fed predominantly human milk, we found an increased risk of NEC associated with exclusive PF (aOR = 12.1, 95% CI 1.5, 94.2), or a mixed diet (aOR 8.7, 95% CI 1.2-65.2). In Monte Carlo simulation, current feeding of ELBW infants was associated with 928 excess NEC cases and 121 excess deaths annually, compared with a model in which 90% of infants received ≥98% human milk. These models estimated an annual cost of suboptimal feeding of ELBW infants of $27.1 million (CI $24 million, $30.4 million) in direct medical costs, $563 655 (CI $476 191, $599 069) in indirect nonmedical costs, and $1.5 billion (CI $1.3 billion, $1.6 billion) in cost attributable to premature death. CONCLUSIONS: Among ELBW infants, not being fed predominantly human milk is associated with an increased risk of NEC. Efforts to support milk production by mothers of ELBW infants may prevent infant deaths and reduce costs.

Challenges and Opportunities of Using a National Database to Evaluate Racial/Ethnic Disparities and Breastfeeding Effects on Sudden Unexpected Infant Death.

Background: Sudden unexpected infant death (SUID) rates remain higher in American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) and non-Hispanic Black (NHB) infants than other demographic groups. Racial disparities are also evident in breastfeeding, which is associated with reduced risk of SUID. Objective: To assess the relationship between racial/ethnic disparities in SUID and breastfeeding beyond the newborn period using U.S. nationally reported public databases. Methods: Data were extracted from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Wide-ranging Online Data for Epidemiologic Research (WONDER) and the National Immunization Surveys (NISs) 2009-2017. WONDER data were restricted to full-term infants and sorted by death year, race/ethnicity, and other characteristics. NIS breastfeeding data included ever breastfed, breastfed at 6 months, and exclusive breastfeeding at 3 and 6 months. Breastfeeding rates and mortality data were aggregated based on race/ethnicity, and mortality rates were analyzed by weighted (number of births) multivariable linear regression. Results: SUID rates were highest among NHB and AI/AN infants who also had the lowest breastfeeding rates. When breastfeeding and race/ethnicity were included in the analyses, race/ethnicity confounded the relationship between breastfeeding and SUID. When race was excluded, ever breastfeeding and any breastfeeding at 6 months were associated with significantly decreased SUID rates. Conclusion: Race/ethnicity confounded the relationship between breastfeeding and SUID. Analysis was limited because individual SUID rates were available for maternal/birth characteristics but not for breastfeeding. Our study showed a need for adding additional data points to other national databases to better understand the role that breastfeeding plays in the racial/ethnic disparities in SUID.

Maternal and Infant Outcomes Associated with Maternity Practices Related to COVID-19: The COVID Mothers Study.

Background: Maternity care practices such as skin-to-skin care, rooming-in, and direct breastfeeding are recommended, but it is unclear if these practices increase the risk of clinically significant COVID-19 in newborns, and if disruption of these practices adversely affects breastfeeding. Methods: We performed a retrospective cohort study of 357 mothers and their infants <12 months who had confirmed or suspected COVID-19. Subjects came from an anonymous worldwide online survey between May 4 and September 30, 2020, who were recruited through social media, support groups, and health care providers. Using multivariable logistic regression, Fisher's exact test, and summary statistics, we assessed the association of skin-to-skin care, feeding, and rooming-in with SARS-CoV-2 outcomes, breastfeeding outcomes, and maternal distress. Results: Responses came from 31 countries. Among SARS-CoV-2+ mothers whose infection was ≤3 days of birth, 7.4% of their infants tested positive. We found a nonsignificant decrease in risk of hospitalization among neonates who roomed-in, directly breastfed, or experienced uninterrupted skin-to-skin care (p > 0.2 for each). Infants who did not directly breastfeed, experience skin-to-skin care, or who did not room-in within arms' reach, were significantly less likely to be exclusively breastfed in the first 3 months, adjusting for maternal symptoms (p ≤ 0.02 for each). Nearly 60% of mothers who experienced separation reported feeling "very distressed," and 29% who tried to breastfeed were unable. Presence of maternal symptoms predicted infant transmission or symptoms (adjusted odds ratio = 4.50, 95% confidence interval = 1.52-13.26, p = 0.006). Conclusion: Disruption of evidence-based quality standards of maternity care is associated with harm and may be unnecessary.

Bedsharing and Breastfeeding: The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine Protocol #6, Revision 2019.

A central goal of the Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine is the development of clinical protocols for managing common medical problems that may impact breastfeeding success. These protocols serve only as guidelines for the care of breastfeeding mothers and infants and do not delineate an exclusive course of treatment or serve as standards of medical care. Variations in treatment may be appropriate according to the needs of an individual patient.

An Online Calculator to Estimate the Impact of Changes in Breastfeeding Rates on Population Health and Costs.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine the impact of changes in breastfeeding rates on population health. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We used a Monte Carlo simulation model to estimate the population-level changes in disease burden associated with marginal changes in rates of any breastfeeding at each month from birth to 12 months of life, and in rates of exclusive breastfeeding from birth to 6 months of life. We used these marginal estimates to construct an interactive online calculator (available at www.usbreastfeeding.org/saving-calc ). The Institutional Review Board of the Cambridge Health Alliance exempted the study. RESULTS: Using our interactive online calculator, we found that a 5% point increase in breastfeeding rates was associated with statistically significant differences in child infectious morbidity for the U.S. population, including otitis media (101,952 cases, 95% confidence interval [CI] 77,929-131,894 cases) and gastrointestinal infection (236,073 cases, 95% CI 190,643-290,278 cases). Associated medical cost differences were $31,784,763 (95% CI $24,295,235-$41,119,548) for otitis media and $12,588,848 ($10,166,203-$15,479,352) for gastrointestinal infection. The state-level impact of attaining Healthy People 2020 goals varied by population size and current breastfeeding rates. CONCLUSION: Modest increases in breastfeeding rates substantially impact healthcare costs in the first year of life.

Cost analysis of maternal disease associated with suboptimal breastfeeding.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the U.S. maternal health burden from current breastfeeding rates both in terms of premature death as well as economic costs. METHODS: Using literature on associations between lactation and maternal health, we modeled the health outcomes and costs expected for a U.S. cohort of 15-year-old females followed to age 70 years. In 2002, this cohort included 1.88 million individuals. Using Monte Carlo simulations, we compared the outcomes expected if 90% of mothers were able to breastfeed for at least 1 year after each birth with outcomes under the current 1-year breastfeeding rate of 23%. We modeled cases of breast cancer, premenopausal ovarian cancer, hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and myocardial infarction considering direct costs, indirect costs, and cost of premature death (before age 70 years) expressed in 2011 dollars. RESULTS: If observed associations between breastfeeding duration and maternal health are causal, we estimate that current breastfeeding rates result in 4,981 excess cases of breast cancer, 53,847 cases of hypertension, and 13,946 cases of myocardial infarction compared with a cohort of 1.88 million U.S. women who optimally breastfed. Using a 3% discount rate, suboptimal breastfeeding incurs a total of $17.4 billion in cost to society resulting from premature death (95% confidence interval [CI] $4.38-24.68 billion), $733.7 million in direct costs (95% CI $612.9-859.7 million), and $126.1 million indirect morbidity costs (95% CI $99.00-153.22 million). We found a nonsignificant difference in number of deaths before age 70 years under current breastfeeding rates (4,396 additional premature deaths, 95% CI -810-7,918). CONCLUSIONS: Suboptimal breastfeeding may increase U.S. maternal morbidity and health care costs. Thus, investigating whether the observed associations between suboptimal breastfeeding and adverse maternal health outcomes are causal should be a research priority.

Decrease in as-needed sedative use by limiting nighttime sleep disruptions from hospital staff.

BACKGROUND: Hospital routines frequently interrupt nighttime sleep. Sedatives promote sleep, but increase the risk of delirium and falls. Few interventional trials have studied sleep promotion in medical-surgical units and little is known about its impact on sedative use. OBJECTIVE: To determine causes of sleep disruption, and assess whether decreasing sleep disruptions lowers sedative use in medical-surgical patients. DESIGN AND SETTING: Interventional trial with historical controls on a medical-surgical unit of a community teaching hospital. Nurses, physicians, and patients were blinded to the measurement of as-needed sedative use. PATIENTS: Consecutive eligible adults (n = 161 preintervention patients, n = 106 intervention patients). INTERVENTION: We developed the "Somerville Protocol," which included the establishment of an 8-hour "Quiet Time" that began with automated lights-off and lullaby; staff-monitored noise; and avoidance of waking of patients for routine vital signs and medications. MEASUREMENTS: As-needed sedative use, responses to a patient questionnaire, and responses to a modified Verran Snyder-Halpern (VSH) sleep scale. RESULTS: Preintervention, "hospital staff " was the disturbance most likely to keep patients awake. The intervention decreased the proportion of patients reporting it from 42% to 26%, a 38% reduction (P = 0.009; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.0452-0.2765). Preintervention, 32% of patients received as-needed sedatives, compared to 16% with the intervention, a 49% reduction (P = 0.0041; 95% CI: 0.056-0.26), with a 62% decrease in patients over age 64 years (P = 0.005). VSH scores were unchanged. CONCLUSIONS: Small modifications in hospital routines, especially in the timing of vital signs and routine medication administration, can significantly reduce sedative use in unselected hospital patients.