CD8 T cell response maturation defined by anentropic specificity and repertoire depth correlates with SIVΔnef-induced protection.

The live attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus (LASIV) vaccine SIVΔnef is one of the most effective vaccines in inducing protection against wild-type lentiviral challenge, yet little is known about the mechanisms underlying its remarkable protective efficacy. Here, we exploit deep sequencing technology and comprehensive CD8 T cell epitope mapping to deconstruct the CD8 T cell response, to identify the regions of immune pressure and viral escape, and to delineate the effect of epitope escape on the evolution of the CD8 T cell response in SIVΔnef-vaccinated animals. We demonstrate that the initial CD8 T cell response in the acute phase of SIVΔnef infection is mounted predominantly against more variable epitopes, followed by widespread sequence evolution and viral escape. Furthermore, we show that epitope escape expands the CD8 T cell repertoire that targets highly conserved epitopes, defined as anentropic specificity, and generates de novo responses to the escaped epitope variants during the vaccination period. These results correlate SIVΔnef-induced protection with expanded anentropic specificity and increased response depth. Importantly, these findings render SIVΔnef, long the gold standard in HIV/SIV vaccine research, as a proof-of-concept vaccine that highlights the significance of the twin principles of anentropic specificity and repertoire depth in successful vaccine design.

Acute-phase CD8 T cell responses that select for escape variants are needed to control live attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus.

The overall CD8 T cell response to human/simian immunodeficiency virus (HIV/SIV) targets a collection of discrete epitope specificities. Some of these epitope-specific CD8 T cells emerge in the weeks and months following infection and rapidly select for sequence variants, whereas other CD8 T cell responses develop during the chronic infection phase and rarely select for sequence variants. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that acute-phase CD8 T cell responses that do not rapidly select for escape variants are unable to control viral replication in vivo as well as those that do rapidly select for escape variants. We created a derivative of live attenuated SIV (SIVmac239Δnef) in which we ablated five epitopes that elicit early CD8 T cell responses and rapidly accumulate sequence variants in SIVmac239-infected Mauritian cynomolgus macaques (MCMs) that are homozygous for the M3 major histocompatibility complex (MHC) haplotype. This live attenuated SIV variant was called m3KOΔnef. Viremia was significantly higher in M3 homozygous MCMs infected with m3KOΔnef than in either MHC-mismatched MCMs infected with m3KOΔnef or MCMs infected with SIVmac239Δnef. Three CD8 T cell responses, including two that do not rapidly select for escape variants, predominated during early m3KOΔnef infection in the M3 homozygous MCMs, but these animals were unable to control viral replication. These results provide evidence that acute-phase CD8 T cell responses that have the potential to rapidly select for escape variants in the early phase of infection are needed to establish viral control in vivo.

Analysis of hepatitis C virus intrahost diversity across the coding region by ultradeep pyrosequencing.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is the leading cause of liver disease worldwide. In this study, we analyzed four treatment-naïve patients infected with subtype 1a and performed Roche/454 pyrosequencing across the coding region. We report the presence of low-level drug resistance mutations that would most likely have been missed using conventional sequencing methods. The approach described here is broadly applicable to studies of viral diversity and could help to improve the efficacy of direct-acting antiviral agents (DAA) in the treatment of HCV-infected patients.

Conditional CD8+ T cell escape during acute simian immunodeficiency virus infection.

CD8+ T cell responses rapidly select viral variants during acute human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection. We used pyrosequencing to examine variation within three SIV-derived epitopes (Gag386₋394GW9, Nef103₋111RM9, and Rev59₋68SP10) targeted by immunodominant CD8+ T cell responses in acutely infected Mauritian cynomolgus macaques. In animals recognizing all three epitopes, variation within Rev59₋68SP10 was associated with delayed accumulation of variants in Gag386₋394GW9 but had no effect on variation within Nef103₋111RM9. This demonstrates that the entire T cell repertoire, rather than a single T cell population, influences the timing of immune escape, thereby providing the first example of conditional CD8+ T cell escape in HIV/SIV infection.

Specific CD8+ T cell responses correlate with control of simian immunodeficiency virus replication in Mauritian cynomolgus macaques.

Specific major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I alleles are associated with an increased frequency of spontaneous control of human and simian immunodeficiency viruses (HIV and SIV). The mechanism of control is thought to involve MHC class I-restricted CD8(+) T cells, but it is not clear whether particular CD8(+) T cell responses or a broad repertoire of epitope-specific CD8(+) T cell populations (termed T cell breadth) are principally responsible for mediating immunologic control. To test the hypothesis that heterozygous macaques control SIV replication as a function of superior T cell breadth, we infected MHC-homozygous and MHC-heterozygous cynomolgus macaques with the pathogenic virus SIVmac239. As measured by a gamma interferon enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot assay (IFN-γ ELISPOT) using blood, T cell breadth did not differ significantly between homozygotes and heterozygotes. Surprisingly, macaques that controlled SIV replication, regardless of their MHC zygosity, shared durable T cell responses against similar regions of Nef. While the limited genetic variability in these animals prevents us from making generalizations about the importance of Nef-specific T cell responses in controlling HIV, these results suggest that the T cell-mediated control of virus replication that we observed is more likely the consequence of targeting specificity rather than T cell breadth.

Transcriptionally abundant major histocompatibility complex class I alleles are fundamental to nonhuman primate simian immunodeficiency virus-specific CD8+ T cell responses.

Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected macaques are the preferred animal model for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) vaccines that elicit CD8(+) T cell responses. Unlike humans, whose CD8(+) T cell responses are restricted by a maximum of six HLA class I alleles, macaques express up to 20 distinct major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) sequences. Interestingly, only a subset of macaque MHC-I sequences are transcriptionally abundant in peripheral blood lymphocytes. We hypothesized that highly transcribed MHC-I sequences are principally responsible for restricting SIV-specific CD8(+) T cell responses. To examine this hypothesis, we measured SIV-specific CD8(+) T cell responses in MHC-I homozygous Mauritian cynomolgus macaques. Each of eight CD8(+) T cell responses defined by full-proteome gamma interferon (IFN-γ) enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT) assay were restricted by four of the five transcripts that are transcriptionally abundant (>1% of total MHC-I transcripts in peripheral blood lymphocytes). The five transcriptionally rare transcripts shared by these animals did not restrict any detectable CD8(+) T cell responses. Further, seven CD8(+) T cell responses were defined by identifying peptide binding motifs of the three most frequent MHC-I transcripts on the M3 haplotype. Combined, these results suggest that transcriptionally abundant MHC-I transcripts are principally responsible for restricting SIV-specific CD8(+) T cell responses. Thus, only a subset of the thousands of known MHC-I alleles in macaques should be prioritized for CD8(+) T cell epitope characterization.

Characterization of full-length MHC class II sequences in Indonesian and Vietnamese cynomolgus macaques.

In recent years, the use of cynomolgus macaques in biomedical research has increased greatly. However, with the exception of the Mauritian population, knowledge of the MHC class II genetics of the species remains limited. Here, using cDNA cloning and Sanger sequencing, we identified 127 full-length MHC class II alleles in a group of 12 Indonesian and 12 Vietnamese cynomolgus macaques. Forty two of these were completely novel to cynomolgus macaques while 61 extended the sequence of previously identified alleles from partial to full length. This more than doubles the number of full-length cynomolgus macaque MHC class II alleles available in GenBank, significantly expanding the allele library for the species and laying the groundwork for future evolutionary and functional studies.

Whole-genome characterization of human and simian immunodeficiency virus intrahost diversity by ultradeep pyrosequencing.

Rapid evolution and high intrahost sequence diversity are hallmarks of human and simian immunodeficiency virus (HIV/SIV) infection. Minor viral variants have important implications for drug resistance, receptor tropism, and immune evasion. Here, we used ultradeep pyrosequencing to sequence complete HIV/SIV genomes, detecting variants present at a frequency as low as 1%. This approach provides a more complete characterization of the viral population than is possible with conventional methods, revealing low-level drug resistance and detecting previously hidden changes in the viral population. While this work applies pyrosequencing to immunodeficiency viruses, this approach could be applied to virtually any viral pathogen.

SIV genome-wide pyrosequencing provides a comprehensive and unbiased view of variation within and outside CD8 T lymphocyte epitopes.

Deep sequencing technology is revolutionizing our understanding of HIV/SIV evolution. It is known that acute SIV sequence variation within CD8 T lymphocyte (CD8-TL) epitopes is similar among MHC-identical animals, but we do not know whether this persists into the chronic phase. We now determine whether chronic viral variation in MHC-identical animals infected with clonal SIV is similar throughout the entire coding sequence when using a sensitive deep sequencing approach. We pyrosequenced the entire coding sequence of the SIV genome isolated from a unique cohort of four SIVmac239-infected, MHC-identical Mauritian cynomolgus macaques (MCM) 48 weeks after infection; one MCM in the cohort became an elite controller. Among the three non-controllers, we found that genome-wide sequences were similar between animals and we detected increased sequence complexity within 64% of CD8-TL epitopes when compared to Sanger sequencing methods. When we compared sequences between the MHC-matched controller and the three non-controllers, we found the viral population in the controller was less diverse and accumulated different variants than the viral populations in the non-controllers. Importantly, we found that initial PCR amplification of viral cDNA did not significantly affect the sequences detected, suggesting that data obtained by pyrosequencing PCR-amplified viral cDNA accurately represents the diversity of sequences replicating within an animal. This demonstrates that chronic sequence diversity across the entire SIV coding sequence is similar among MHC-identical animals with comparable viral loads when infected with the same clonal virus stock. Additionally, our approach to genome-wide SIV sequencing accurately reflects the diversity of sequences present in the replicating viral population. In sum, our study suggests that genome-wide pyrosequencing of immunodeficiency viruses captures a thorough and unbiased picture of sequence diversity, and may be a useful approach to employ when evaluating which sequences to include as part of a vaccine immunogen.

Experimental analysis of sources of error in evolutionary studies based on Roche/454 pyrosequencing of viral genomes.

Factors affecting the reliability of Roche/454 pyrosequencing for analyzing sequence polymorphism in within-host viral populations were assessed by two experiments: 1) sequencing four clonal simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) stocks and 2) sequencing mixtures in different proportions of two SIV strains with known fixed nucleotide differences. Observed nucleotide diversity and frequency of undetermined nucleotides were increased at sites in homopolymer runs of four or more identical nucleotides, particularly at AT sites. However, in the mixed-strain experiments, the effects on estimated nucleotide diversity of such errors were small in comparison to known strain differences. The results suggest that biologically meaningful variants present at a frequency of around 10% and possibly much lower are easily distinguished from artifacts of the sequencing process. Analysis of the clonal stocks revealed numerous rare variants that showed the signature of purifying selection and that elimination of variants at frequencies of less than 1% reduced estimates of nucleotide diversity by about an order of magnitude. Thus, using a 1% frequency cutoff for accepting a variant as real represents a conservative standard, which may be useful in studies that are focused on the discovery of specific mutations (such as those conferring immune escape or drug resistance). On the other hand, if the goal is to estimate nucleotide diversity, an optimal strategy might be to include all observed variants (even those at less than 1% frequency), while masking out homopolymer runs of four or more nucleotides.

MHC heterozygote advantage in simian immunodeficiency virus-infected Mauritian cynomolgus macaques.

The importance of a broad CD8 T lymphocyte (CD8-TL) immune response to HIV is unknown. Ex vivo measurements of immunological activity directed at a limited number of defined epitopes provide an incomplete portrait of the actual immune response. We examined viral loads in simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-homozygous and MHC-heterozygous Mauritian cynomolgus macaques. Chronic viremia in MHC-homozygous macaques was 80 times that in MHC-heterozygous macaques. Virus from MHC-homozygous macaques accumulated 11 to 14 variants, consistent with escape from CD8-TL responses after 1 year of SIV infection. The pattern of mutations detected in MHC-heterozygous macaques suggests that their epitope-specific CD8-TL responses are a composite of those present in their MHC-homozygous counterparts. These results provide the clearest example of MHC heterozygote advantage among individuals infected with the same immunodeficiency virus strain, suggesting that broad recognition of multiple CD8-TL epitopes should be a key feature of HIV vaccines.

MHC class I characterization of Indonesian cynomolgus macaques.

Cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) are quickly becoming a useful model for infectious disease and transplantation research. Even though cynomolgus macaques from different geographic regions are used for these studies, there has been limited characterization of full-length major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I immunogenetics of distinct geographic populations. Here, we identified 48 MHC class I cDNA nucleotide sequences in eleven Indonesian cynomolgus macaques, including 41 novel Mafa-A and Mafa-B sequences. We found seven MHC class I sequences in Indonesian macaques that were identical to MHC class I sequences identified in Malaysian or Mauritian macaques. Sharing of nucleotide sequences between these geographically distinct populations is also consistent with the hypothesis that Indonesia was a source of the Mauritian macaque population. In addition, we found that the Indonesian cDNA sequence Mafa-B7601 is identical throughout its peptide binding domain to Mamu-B03, an allele that has been associated with control of Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) viremia in Indian rhesus macaques. Overall, a better understanding of the MHC class I alleles present in Indonesian cynomolgus macaques improves their value as a model for disease research, and it better defines the biogeography of cynomolgus macaques throughout Southeast Asia.

Comprehensive characterization of MHC class II haplotypes in Mauritian cynomolgus macaques.

There are currently no nonhuman primate models with fully defined major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II genetics. We recently showed that six common MHC haplotypes account for essentially all MHC diversity in cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) from the island of Mauritius. In this study, we employ complementary DNA cloning and sequencing to comprehensively characterize full length MHC class II alleles expressed at the Mafa-DPA, -DPB, -DQA, -DQB, -DRA, and -DRB loci on the six common haplotypes. We describe 34 full-length MHC class II alleles, 12 of which are completely novel. Polymorphism was evident at all six loci including DPA, a locus thought to be monomorphic in rhesus macaques. Similar to other Old World monkeys, Mauritian cynomolgus macaques (MCM) share MHC class II allelic lineages with humans at the DQ and DR loci, but not at the DP loci. Additionally, we identified extensive sharing of MHC class II alleles between MCM and other nonhuman primates. The characterization of these full-length-expressed MHC class II alleles will enable researchers to generate MHC class II transferent cell lines, tetramers, and other molecular reagents that can be used to explore CD4+ T lymphocyte responses in MCM.