Visualization of Calcium Dynamics in Kidney Proximal Tubules.

Intrarenal changes in cytoplasmic calcium levels have a key role in determining pathologic and pharmacologic responses in major kidney diseases. However, cell-specific delivery of calcium-sensitive probes in vivo remains problematic. We generated a transgenic rat stably expressing the green fluorescent protein-calmodulin-based genetically encoded calcium indicator (GCaMP2) predominantly in the kidney proximal tubules. The transposon-based method used allowed the generation of homozygous transgenic rats containing one copy of the transgene per allele with a defined insertion pattern, without genetic or phenotypic alterations. We applied in vitro confocal and in vivo two-photon microscopy to examine basal calcium levels and ligand- and drug-induced alterations in these levels in proximal tubular epithelial cells. Notably, renal ischemia induced a transient increase in cellular calcium, and reperfusion resulted in a secondary calcium load, which was significantly decreased by systemic administration of specific blockers of the angiotensin receptor and the Na-Ca exchanger. The parallel examination of in vivo cellular calcium dynamics and renal circulation by fluorescent probes opens new possibilities for physiologic and pharmacologic investigations.

Neonatal FcR overexpression boosts humoral immune response in transgenic mice.

The neonatal FcR (FcRn) regulates IgG and albumin homeostasis, mediates maternal IgG transport, takes active part in phagocytosis, and delivers Ag for presentation. We have previously shown that overexpression of FcRn in transgenic (Tg) mice extends the half-life of mouse IgG by reducing its clearance. In this paper, we demonstrate that immunization of these mice with OVA and trinitrophenyl-conjugated human IgG results in a 3- to 10-fold increase of Ag-specific IgM and IgG in serum. The IgM increase was unexpected because FcRn does not bind IgM. Our results showed that the affinity of the Ag-specific IgG was at least as good in Tg mice as in the wild-type (wt) controls, implying appropriate affinity maturation in both groups. Influenza vaccination produced a 2-fold increase in the amount of virus-specific Ab in Tg animals, which proved twice as efficient in a hemagglutination inhibition assay as was the case in wt controls. After immunization, Tg mice displayed significantly larger spleens containing a higher number of Ag-specific B cells and plasma cells, as well as many more granulocytes and dendritic cells, analyzed by ELISPOT and flow cytometric studies. The neutrophils from these Tg mice expressed the Tg FcRn and phagocytosed IgG immune complexes more efficiently than did those from wt mice. These results show that FcRn overexpression not only extends the IgG half-life but also enhances the expansion of Ag-specific B cells and plasma cells. Although both effects increase the level of Ag-specific IgG, the increase in immune response and IgG production seems to be more prominent compared with the reduced IgG clearance.

Nociception, neurogenic inflammation and thermoregulation in TRPV1 knockdown transgenic mice.

Transgenic mice with a small hairpin RNA construct interfering with the expression of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) were created by lentiviral transgenesis. TRPV1 expression level in transgenic mice was reduced to 8% while the expression of ankyrin repeat domain 1 (TRPA1) was unchanged. Ear oedema induced by topical application of TRPV1 agonist capsaicin was completely absent in TRPV1 knockdown mice. Thermoregulatory behaviour in relation to environmental thermopreference (30 vs. 35°C) was slightly impaired in male knockdown mice, but the reduction of TRPV1 function was not associated with enhanced hyperthermia. TRPV1 agonist resiniferatoxin induced hypothermia and tail vasodilatation was markedly inhibited in knockdown mice. In conclusion, shRNA-mediated knock down of the TRPV1 receptor in mice induced robust inhibition of the responses to TRPV1 agonists without altering the expression, gating function or neurogenic oedema provoked by TRPA1 activation. Thermoregulatory behaviour in response to heat was inhibited, but enhanced hyperthermia was not observed.

Characterization of the interactions of rabbit neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) with rabbit and human IgG isotypes.

Despite the increasing importance of rabbit as an animal model in pharmacological studies like investigating placental transfer of therapeutic IgGs, little is known about the molecular interaction of the rabbit neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) with rabbit and human IgG molecules. We analyzed the interactions of the rabbit and human FcRn with rabbit and human IgG isotypes using surface plasmon resonance assay. Similar to FcRn of other species, rabbit FcRn functions in pH-dependent manner, as it binds IgGs at pH 6.0, but no binding occurs at pH 7.4. We also showed that rabbit FcRn binds rabbit IgG and human IgG1 with nearly identical affinity, whereas it has stronger interactions with the other human IgG isotypes. The similar affinity of rabbit IgG and human IgG1 for rabbit FcRn was confirmed by in vitro FcRn-mediated recycling assay. These data verify that rabbit is an appropriate animal model for analyzing the pharmacokinetics of human therapeutic monoclonal antibodies.

Generation of a Homozygous Transgenic Rat Strain Stably Expressing a Calcium Sensor Protein for Direct Examination of Calcium Signaling.

In drug discovery, prediction of selectivity and toxicity require the evaluation of cellular calcium homeostasis. The rat is a preferred laboratory animal for pharmacology and toxicology studies, while currently no calcium indicator protein expressing rat model is available. We established a transgenic rat strain stably expressing the GCaMP2 fluorescent calcium sensor by a transposon-based methodology. Zygotes were co-injected with mRNA of transposase and a CAG-GCaMP2 expressing construct, and animals with one transgene copy were pre-selected by measuring fluorescence in blood cells. A homozygous rat strain was generated with high sensor protein expression in the heart, kidney, liver, and blood cells. No pathological alterations were found in these animals, and fluorescence measurements in cardiac tissue slices and primary cultures demonstrated the applicability of this system for studying calcium signaling. We show here that the GCaMP2 expressing rat cardiomyocytes allow the prediction of cardiotoxic drug side-effects, and provide evidence for the role of Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger and its beneficial pharmacological modulation in cardiac reperfusion. Our data indicate that drug-induced alterations and pathological processes can be followed by using this rat model, suggesting that transgenic rats expressing a calcium-sensitive protein provide a valuable system for pharmacological and toxicological studies.

Transgenic rabbits that overexpress the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) generate higher quantities and improved qualities of anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG).

Immune suppression with rabbit anti-thymocyte globulin (rATG) is a well-established therapeutic concept for preventing host rejection of transplanted organs and graft versus host disease. Increasing the efficiency of rATG production by reducing the number of animals would be highly beneficial to lower cost and to improve quality standards. We have developed transgenic (Tg) mice and rabbits that overexpress the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) and have shown an augmented humoral immune response in these animals. To test whether our FcRn Tg rabbits produced rATG more efficiently, we immunized them and their New Zealand White controls with live Jurkat cells. By day 21 after immunization, Tg animals produced significantly, 1.5 times higher amount of total IgG compared to their wt littermates. Also, the binding efficiency of Tg sera to Jurkat cells and their complement-mediated cytotoxicity was significantly higher. The purified Tg IgG preparation contained 2.6 the amount of Jurkat specific IgG as the wt preparation analyzed by complement-mediated lysis, suggesting greater antigen-specific B cell activation in the Tg rabbits. To test this hypothesis, immunization with ovalbumin and human α1-antitrypsin was performed, resulting in significantly greater numbers of antigen-specific B-cells in the FcRn Tg rabbits as compared with wt controls. The shift towards significantly larger populations of antigen-specific B cells relative to the non-specific B cell pool is further corroborated by our previous findings in FcRn Tg mice. Consequently, our FcRn Tg rabbits have the potential to offer substantial qualitative and quantitative improvements for the production of rATG and other polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies.

Low titer lentiviral transgenesis in rodents with simian immundeficiency virus vector.

Efficient production of transgenic animals using low-titer lentiviral constructs remains challenging. Here we demonstrate that microinjection of simian immundeficiency virus-derived lentiviral constructs can produce transgenic mice and rats with high efficiency even when using low-titer virus preparations.

NFκB induces overexpression of bovine FcRn: a novel mechanism that further contributes to the enhanced immune response in genetically modified animals carrying extra copies of FcRn.

Among the many functions of the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) for IgG, it binds to IgG-opsonized antigen complexes and propagates their traffic into lysosomes where antigen processing occurs. We previously reported that transgenic (Tg) mice and rabbits that carry multiple copies and overexpress FcRn have augmented humoral immune responses. Nuclear factor-kappa B (NFκB) is a critical molecule in the signaling cascade in the immune response. NFκB induces human FcRn expression and our previous in silico analysis suggested NFκB binding sites in the promoter region of the bovine (b) FcRn α-chain gene (FCGRT). Here, we report the identification of three NFκB transcription binding sites in the promoter region of this gene using luciferase reporter gene technology, electromobility shift assay and supershift analysis. Stimulation of primary bovine endothelial cells with the Toll-like receptor-4 ligand lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which mediates its effect via NFκB, resulted in rapid upregulation of the bFcRn expression and a control gene, bovine E-selectin. This rapid bFcRn gene induction was also observed in the spleen of bFcRn Tg mice treated with intraperitoneally injected LPS, analyzed by northern blot analysis. Finally, NFκB-mediated bFcRn upregulation was confirmed at the protein level in macrophages isolated from the bFcRn Tg mice using flow cytometry with a newly developed FcRn specific monoclonal antibody that does not cross-react with the mouse FcRn. We conclude that NFκB regulates bFcRn expression and thus optimizes its functions, e.g., in the professional antigen presenting cells, and contributes to the much augmented humoral immune response in the bFcRn Tg mice.

Characterization of the rabbit neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) and analyzing the immunophenotype of the transgenic rabbits that overexpresses FcRn.

The neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) regulates IgG and albumin homeostasis, mediates maternal IgG transport, takes an active role in phagocytosis, and delivers antigen for presentation. We have previously shown that overexpression of FcRn in transgenic mice significantly improves the humoral immune response. Because rabbits are an important source of polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies, adaptation of our FcRn overexpression technology in this species would bring significant advantages. We cloned the full length cDNA of the rabbit FcRn alpha-chain and found that it is similar to its orthologous analyzed so far. The rabbit FcRn - IgG contact residues are highly conserved, and based on this we predicted pH dependent interaction, which we confirmed by analyzing the pH dependent binding of FcRn to rabbit IgG using yolk sac lysates of rabbit fetuses by Western blot. Using immunohistochemistry, we detected strong FcRn staining in the endodermal cells of the rabbit yolk sac membrane, while the placental trophoblast cells and amnion showed no FcRn staining. Then, using BAC transgenesis we generated transgenic rabbits carrying and overexpressing a 110 kb rabbit genomic fragment encoding the FcRn. These transgenic rabbits--having one extra copy of the FcRn when hemizygous and two extra copies when homozygous--showed improved IgG protection and an augmented humoral immune response when immunized with a variety of different antigens. Our results in these transgenic rabbits demonstrate an increased immune response, similar to what we described in mice, indicating that FcRn overexpression brings significant advantages for the production of polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies.

FcRn overexpression in transgenic mice results in augmented APC activity and robust immune response with increased diversity of induced antibodies.

Our previous studies have shown that overexpression of bovine FcRn (bFcRn) in transgenic (Tg) mice leads to an increase in the humoral immune response, characterized by larger numbers of Ag-specific B cells and other immune cells in secondary lymphoid organs and higher levels of circulating Ag-specific antibodies (Abs). To gain additional insights into the mechanisms underlying this increase in humoral immune response, we further characterized the bFcRn Tg mice. Our Western blot analysis showed strong expression of the bFcRn transgene in peritoneal macrophages and bone marrow derived dendritic cells; and a quantitative PCR analysis demonstrated that the expression ratios of the bFcRn to mFcRn were 2.6- and 10-fold in these cells, respectively. We also found that overexpression of bFcRn enhances the phagocytosis of Ag-IgG immune complexes (ICs) by both macrophages and dendritic cells and significantly improves Ag presentation by dendritic cells. Finally, we determined that immunized bFcRn mice produce a much greater diversity of Ag-specific IgM, whereas only the levels, but not the diversity, of IgG is increased by overexpression of bFcRn. We suggest that the increase in diversity of IgG in Tg mice is prevented by a selective bias towards immunodominant epitopes of ovalbumin, which was used in this study as a model antigen. These results are also in line with our previous reports describing a substantial increase in the levels of Ag-specific IgG in FcRn Tg mice immunized with Ags that are weakly immunogenic and, therefore, not affected by immunodominance.

Position independent and copy-number-related expression of the bovine neonatal Fc receptor alpha-chain in transgenic mice carrying a 102 kb BAC genomic fragment.

We generated and characterized transgenic mice carrying a 102 kb bovine genomic fragment, encoding the neonatal Fc receptor alpha-chain (bFcRn). FcRn plays a crucial role in the maternal IgG transport and it also regulates the IgG and albumin homeostasis. Some of its functions and transcriptional regulation show species specific differences. The FcRn heterodimer is composed of the alpha-chain and beta-2-microglobulin (beta2 m). A bacterial artificial chromosome containing the bovine FcRn alpha-chain gene (bFCGRT) with its 44 kb 5' and 50 kb long 3' flanking sequences was microinjected into fertilized mouse oocytes. Two of the transgenic lines generated, showed copy number related and integration site independent bFcRn expression. The bFcRn alpha-chain forms a functional receptor with the mouse beta2-microglobulin and extends the half-life of the mouse IgG in transgenic mice. Our results underline the feasibility of creating BAC transgenic mouse models of economically important bovine genes.

Expression of the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) in the bovine mammary gland.

In ruminants, protective immunoglobulins are transferred to the newborn via colostrum to mediate maternal immunity. There is a high selectivity in the transport of immunoglobulins from the maternal plasma across the mammary barrier into the colostrum, and only IgG1 is transferred in large amounts. We have recently analysed the expression of the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) in sheep mammary gland around parturition. Re-analysing this issue in bovine confirmed our previous data indicating that FcRn is homogeneously localized in the mammary gland acinar cells before parturition, however a remarkable difference was observed in the pattern after calving, where only the apical side of the cells was strongly stained. The presence of the FcRn in the acinar epithelial cells of the mammary gland and the obvious change in distribution before and after parturition indicate that FcRn plays an important role in the IgG transport during colostrum formation in ruminants.