Indirect Associations Between Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Other Psychiatric Symptoms, Alcohol Use, and Well-being via Psychological Flexibility Among Police Officers.

Police officers experience a high number of potentially traumatic events (PTEs) often associated with elevated posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). In addition, PTSS are related to co-occurring psychiatric symptoms (e.g., anxiety, depression), alcohol misuse, and low perceived well-being. Yet, behavioral processes that may account for the associations between PTSS and unfavorable outcomes remain unspecified. Psychological flexibility, or one's response to private experiences (e.g., PTE-related memories) with an open, aware, and active approach, may be one such process. The present study aimed to evaluate psychological flexibility as both a mediator and moderator of PTSS and commonly co-occurring psychiatric symptoms, alcohol use, and general well-being, using cross-sectional data provided by a sample of police officers (N = 459) recruited from three regionally distributed U.S. police agencies. Structural equation modeling indicated a well-fitting model wherein psychological flexibility indirectly accounted for associations among PTSS and endogenous outcomes, χ2 (107, N = 457) = 225.33, p < .001, CFI = .99, TLI = .98, RMSEA = .05, 90% CI [.04, .06], SRMR = .03. Psychological flexibility also moderated associations between PTSS and psychiatric symptoms, B = 1.58 (SE = 0.22), p < .001; and well-being, B = -3.84 (SE = 0.46), p < .001. Although additional research is needed, these preliminary results suggest psychological flexibility may be a behavioral process that accounts for negative outcomes associated with PTSS and a productive intervention target in the context of PTSS and generalized distress. Further research regarding the role of psychological flexibility in PTSS-related outcomes for police officers appears warranted.

Daily associations of interpersonal and emotional experiences following stressful events among young adults with and without nonsuicidal self-injury.

OBJECTIVES: Emotional and interpersonal dysfunction appears central to nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI), yet research examining the interplay of these factors among individuals with NSSI is limited. This study aimed to specify such associations before and after daily stressful events among individuals with (vs. without) NSSI. METHODS: Young adult participants (Mage = 20.4) with past-year (n = 56) or no history (n = 47) of NSSI completed daily diary assessments over a 2-week period. RESULTS: No differences in rates of positive or negative interpersonal experiences before or after stressful events were identified. NSSI participants, however, reported greater negative emotion following stressful events compared with non-NSSI participants. The presence (vs. absence) of a positive interpersonal experience following a stressful event was related to lower negative emotional responses only in the NSSI group. CONCLUSION: Positive interpersonal experiences may downregulate negative emotions following stressful events among individuals with NSSI, highlighting the potential relevance of interpersonal emotion regulation to this population.

Examining posttraumatic stress disorder as a predictor of treatment response to dialectical behavior therapy.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the presence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a predictor of treatment response to dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) across the primary outcomes of interest within DBT (i.e., borderline personality disorder [BPD] symptoms, deliberate self-harm, emotion regulation [ER] difficulties) and PTSD symptoms. METHOD: Participants (N = 56) were consecutive admissions to an outpatient DBT clinic that completed diagnostic interviews at intake and self-report outcome measures at intake and every 3 months throughout the treatment. RESULTS: Patients with (vs. without) a PTSD diagnosis did not report greater clinical severity at intake on most outcome measures, with the exception of PTSD symptom severity and, among older patients only, ER difficulties. The presence of a PTSD diagnosis was not associated with poorer treatment response to DBT. Instead, PTSD was associated with better response on the measure of BPD symptom severity. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that patients with PTSD can benefit from DBT.

The Role of Emotional Avoidance, the Patient-Provider Relationship, and Other Social Support in ART Adherence for HIV+ Individuals.

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) is associated with positive health outcomes among HIV+ patients. However, non-adherence remains high. Though factors that account for non-adherence remain unclear, social support has been consistently associated with ART adherence. As such, identifying malleable factors that hinder patients' ability to form supportive relationships may have consequence for improving ART adherence. Emotional avoidance (EA) may be one such factor given that it has been linked to difficulties in social situations. The present study examined relations among EA, the patient-provider relationship, other sources of social support, and ART adherence within a sample of HIV+ ART-prescribed patients. High EA was related to poor adherence and patient-provider relationships. EA was indirectly related to poor adherence through poorer patient-provider interactions. The indirect relation of EA to ART adherence through other sources of social support was not significant. Implications for developing targeted behavioral interventions focused on improving ART adherence are discussed.

Evaluation of the contribution of values clarification to a brief mindfulness meditation intervention for anxiety.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate the incremental effects of a computerized values clarification (VC) activity on anxiety symptomology and quality of life over and above establishment of a mindfulness meditation (MM) practice. METHOD: Anxious participants (N = 120, Female = 86; Mage  = 22.26) were randomly assigned to a 2-week, 10-min daily MM practice + control task or a 2-week, 10-min daily MM practice + VC task. Pre-assessments and post-assessments included well-established and ideographic self-report measures. RESULTS: Overall decreases in past week and past 24-h anxiety symptom frequency, as well as increased quality of life during the previous 24-h cycle only. VC did not have a demonstrable impact on outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Though findings are preliminary, brief VC exercises may not enhance outcomes that follow from mindfulness practice. Additional research is needed to isolate specific and shared impacts of mindfulness-based and values-based treatment strategies on anxiety symptoms and quality of life.

Using panicogenic inhalations of carbon dioxide enriched air to induce attentional bias for threat: Implications for the development of anxiety disorders.

The tendency for anxious individuals to selectively attend to threatening information is believed to cause and exacerbate anxious emotional responding in a self-perpetuating cycle. The present study sought to examine the relation between differential interoceptive conditioning (IC) using carbon dioxide inhalation as a panicogenic unconditioned stimulus (US) and the development of Stroop colour-naming interference to various non-word conditioned stimuli (CSs). Healthy university students (N = 27) underwent the assessment of colour-naming interference to reinforced CS+ and non-reinforced CS- non-words prior to and following differential fear conditioning. Participants showed greater magnitude electrodermal and verbal-evaluative responses to the CS+ over the CS- non-word following IC, and demonstrated the expected slower colour-naming latencies to the CS+ compared to the CS- non-word from baseline to post-conditioning. We discuss the relation between fear learning and the emergence of attentional bias for threat to further understand the maintenance of anxiety disorders.

Clarifying relations of emotion regulation, emotional avoidance and anxiety symptoms in a community-based treatment-seeking sample.

OBJECTIVES: Anxiety is a global problem that is readily treatable with psychosocial interventions, though many individuals do not benefit following participation in extant treatment protocols. Accordingly, clarification of process-related variables that may be leveraged to enhance outcomes appears warranted. Emotion regulation (ER) is a robust correlate of anxiety symptoms and is often targeted in behavioural treatments applied to anxiety-related problems. Yet, some evidence suggests ER difficulties may be a proxy variable for emotional avoidance (EA). Clarifying the relative influence of ER and EA on anxiety symptom severity may improve specificity in targeting behavioural processes within psychosocial treatments designed to alleviate anxiety-related suffering. Accordingly, we examined relations of ER and EA to anxiety symptom severity after accounting for anxiety sensitivity and anxiolytic medication use in a community-based treatment-seeking sample. DESIGN: A four-step hierarchical linear regression analysis of cross-sectional data provided by a community-based treatment-seeking sample. METHODS: Totally, 120 participants (Mage = 39.18; Female = 58.3%) completed a questionnaire packet upon intake to an anxiety disorders clinic. RESULTS: EA and ER were strongly correlated, and each accounted for significant variance over and above model covariates. EA was a dominant risk factor for anxiety symptom severity, as ER was not a significant predictor (p = .073) following the inclusion of EA in the model (p = .006). CONCLUSIONS: EA appears to be a dominant risk factor, and ER a proxy risk factor, for anxiety symptom severity. EA may be an avenue for greater treatment specificity for those with anxiety symptoms.

Investigating the effects of emotion dysregulation and repetitive negative thinking on alcohol hangover anxiety and depression.

INTRODUCTION: Underlying factors associated with alcohol hangover psychological symptoms, such as anxiety and depression, have not been identified. Emotion dysregulation and repetitive negative thinking (RNT) are transdiagnostic factors associated with psychopathology, including non-hangover anxiety and depression. The current study prospectively examined the role of emotion dysregulation on subsequent alcohol hangover anxiety and depression symptoms, as well as the moderating role of RNT on this relation among university students. METHODS: One hundred thirty-six participants completed baseline assessments of emotion dysregulation (DERS-16) and non-hangover anxiety and depression (DASS-21). Thirty-nine participants reported experiencing alcohol hangover at 2-week follow up and completed assessments of RNT (PTQ) and hangover anxiety and depression (modified DASS-21). Two independent regression-based moderation analyses were conducted to examine the relation of baseline emotion dysregulation, 2-week follow-up RNT, and hangover anxiety and depression symptoms after accounting for baseline non-hangover anxiety and depression symptoms. RESULTS: Among those experiencing alcohol hangover (n = 39), emotion dysregulation and RNT were not associated with hangover related anxiety beyond non-hangover anxiety. Emotion dysregulation significantly predicted hangover depression but was rendered non-significant by the addition of RNT, which was significantly associated with hangover depression. RNT moderated the emotion dysregulation-hangover depression relation such that emotion dysregulation was not associated with future hangover depression at low levels of RNT but was positively associated with hangover depression at moderate to high levels of RNT. CONCLUSION: Results provide preliminary support for the role of emotion dysregulation and RNT in hangover depression severity.

Emotion dysregulation across levels of substance use.

Emotion dysregulation has shown to be of importance in the onset and maintenance of psychiatric disorders, including substance use disorders. How difficulties in emotion regulation differ across levels of substance use, and whether these relations are influenced by co-occurring psychiatric disorders, is less clear. This study aimed to identify difficulties in emotion regulation across the spectrum of substance use and evaluate the influence of co-occurring psychiatric symptoms. Self-reported emotion regulation difficulties, substance use, and other psychiatric symptoms were assessed in one community sample (n = 843) and two inpatient clinics, with substance use disorder populations (n = 415). Data were merged and analyzed with regression models and correlations. Emotion dysregulation was distributed across different levels of substance use, and significantly associated with substance use severity and frequency. High substance use severity and frequency was significantly associated with high scores on the emotion dysregulation facet specifically involving difficulties controlling impulsive behaviors. Psychiatric symptoms did not significantly influence the association between substance use and emotion dysregulation. Results indicate an association between emotion dysregulation and the frequency and severity of substance use, and also suggest that difficulties controlling impulsive behaviors may be a potentially useful treatment target for individuals with substance dependence.

Evaluating ACT Processes in Relation to Outcome in Self-Help Treatment for Anxiety-Related Problems.

Evaluating how, for whom, and under what conditions psychosocial treatments work is an important component of anxiety disorder treatment development. Yet, research regarding mediators and moderators of self-help interventions is sparse. The current project is a secondary analysis of mediators, moderators, and correlates of outcome of a randomized wait-list-controlled trial assessing acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) self-help bibliotherapy for anxiety and related problems. Participants (n = 503) were randomized to an immediate workbook (n = 256) or wait-list condition (n = 247). Nonparametric bootstrapped mediation analyses showed that pre-post positive changes in ACT treatment processes accounted for the relation between treatment and pre-post improvement on the primary outcomes of anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, and quality of life. Results indicated no baseline variables were significant moderators. Finally, hierarchical regression analyses indicated that the degree of improvement for each primary outcome was positively correlated with the degree to which participants reported applying the workbook material to their day-to-day life, over and above how much of the book they reported reading. This study provided support for the ACT model of change in a self-help context and highlighted the importance of actively applying self-help material, addressing theoretical and practical questions about how and why ACT self-help works.

Emotional lability and affective synchrony in posttraumatic stress disorder pathology.

This study examined the relations of PTSD pathology to both the lability of three specific emotions (anxiety, anger, self-conscious emotions [SCE]) and the extent to which changes in one emotional state co-occur with changes in another emotional state (i.e. affective synchrony). Moreover, given evidence that emotional responding in PTSD may be heightened in response to trauma-related cues, these relations were explored in the context of a trauma cue versus neutral cue. Trauma-exposed patients in residential substance use disorder treatment (N=157) completed a diagnostic interview and two laboratory sessions involving presentation of neutral and individualized trauma scripts. State anxiety, anger, and SCE were assessed at five points throughout each laboratory session. Hierarchical linear modeling indicated that participants (regardless of PTSD status) exhibited greater lability of all emotions following the trauma script versus neutral script. Only anger lability was elevated among those with (versus without) a current PTSD diagnosis following the neutral script. Results also revealed synchrony (i.e., positive covariation) between each possible pair of emotions, regardless of PTSD status. Findings suggest that concurrent changes in anxiety and anger may be especially relevant to PTSD symptom severity.

Borderline Personality Disorder Symptoms and Pain in College Students: The Role of Emotional Suppression.

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is associated with higher rates of pain conditions and greater pain impairment. Past research implicates emotional suppression in acute pain tolerance; thus, emotional suppression may contribute to pain interference among those with high BPD features. Participants were 89 university students who completed measures of BPD features, and complied with 2-week daily diary procedures assessing suppression of emotional thoughts associated with social and nonsocial stressors, distress, pain severity, and interference. Multilevel models revealed a BPD × Suppression × Distress interaction, such that suppression in response to social (but not nonsocial) stressors in the context of high distress was related to pain interference when controlling for pain severity among those with high, but not low, BPD features. These findings suggest. that suppression of emotionally relevant thoughts in response to high distress may contribute to the functional impairment from pain among those with high BPD symptoms.

An Initial Open Trial of a Brief Behavioral Activation Treatment for Depression and Medication Adherence in HIV-Infected Patients.

Advances in HIV treatment through highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) have led to a steady decline in HIV-related mortality rates. However, HAART requires adherence to strict and often complicated medication regimens, and nonadherence to HAART can significantly decrease its effectiveness. Depression has consistently shown a robust association with medication nonadherence; consequently, numerous psychological interventions have been developed to target depression and increase medication adherence among HIV-infected individuals. The length of these interventions, however, may be prohibitive for certain HIV-infected populations, such as patients in rural areas. Therefore, this study provides an initial investigation of a one-session behavioral activation treatment for depression designed specifically for HIV-infected patients (BATD-HIV) at a community infectious disease clinic serving a largely rural population. In this initial uncontrolled open trial, BATD-HIV was administered to 10 HIV-infected patients with elevated symptoms of depression following their clinic appointment. Depression, anxiety, and stress symptom severity; behavioral activation processes; medication adherence; and CD4 T-cell count were assessed pre- and 1 month postintervention. Participants exhibited significant reductions in anxiety symptom severity and avoidance of negative aversive states and rumination from pre- to 1 month posttreatment. Although nonsignificant, participants also showed medium effect size reductions in depression and stress symptoms and work/school and social impairment, and medium effect size improvements in medication adherence and CD4 T-cell counts. Despite the preliminary nature of this study, results suggest that BATD-HIV may have utility as a brief treatment for HIV-infected patients with depression and warrants further investigation in larger scale randomized controlled trials.

PTSD Symptom Severity and Emotion Regulation Strategy Use During Trauma Cue Exposure Among Patients With Substance Use Disorders: Associations With Negative Affect, Craving, and Cortisol Reactivity.

The co-occurrence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) pathology with a substance use disorder (SUD) is associated with emotion regulation deficits. However, studies in this area generally rely on trait-based emotion regulation measures, and there is limited information on the relation of PTSD pathology to the use of specific emotion regulation strategies in response to trauma-related distress among SUD patients or the consequences of these strategies for trauma cue reactivity. This study examined the relation of PTSD symptom severity to the use of specific emotion regulation strategies during trauma cue exposure among trauma-exposed SUD patients, as well as the indirect relations of PTSD symptom severity to changes in negative affect, cravings, and cortisol levels pre- to posttrauma cue exposure through different emotion regulation strategies. Participants were 133 trauma-exposed SUD patients. Participants listened to a personalized trauma script and reported on emotion regulation strategies used during the script. Data on negative affect, cravings, and cortisol were collected pre- and postscript. PTSD symptom severity related positively to the use of more adaptive (e.g., distraction) and maladaptive (e.g., suppression) regulation strategies. Moreover, evidence for the indirect effects of PTSD symptom severity on negative affect and cortisol reactivity through both adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies was found. Implications of findings are discussed.

The Role of Experiential Avoidance in the Relation between Anxiety Disorder Diagnoses and Future Physical Health Symptoms in a Community Sample of Young Adult Women.

Individuals diagnosed with an anxiety disorder report more physical health problems than those without an anxiety disorder. Few studies have examined the relation of anxiety disorders to later physical health symptoms, or the processes that may explain this relation. One process of interest is experiential avoidance (EA), which is commonly reported in populations characterized by high anxiety and often leads to health-compromising behaviors. The present study examined the relations between anxiety disorder diagnostic status, EA, and physical health symptoms in a community sample of young adult women. Results revealed a significant association between an anxiety disorder diagnosis and physical health problems four months later. Furthermore, levels of EA accounted for this relation. Findings highlight the potential utility of targeting EA as a method for improving health outcomes among individuals with anxiety disorders.

Emotional lability and affective synchrony in borderline personality disorder.

Extant research on emotional lability in borderline personality disorder (BPD) has focused almost exclusively on lability of individual emotions or emotion types, with limited research considering how different types of emotions shift together over time. Thus, this study examined the temporal dynamics of emotion in BPD at the level of both individual emotions (i.e., self-conscious emotions [SCE], anger, and anxiety) and mixed emotions (i.e., synchrony between emotions). One hundred forty-four women from the community completed a diagnostic interview and laboratory study involving 5 emotion induction tasks (each of which was preceded and followed by a 5-min resting period or neutral task). State ratings of SCE, anger, and anxiety were provided at 14 time points (before and after each laboratory task and resting period). Hierarchical linear modeling results indicate that women with BPD reported greater mean levels of SCE and Anxiety (but not Anger), and greater lability of Anxiety. Women with BPD also exhibited greater variability in lability of all 3 emotions (suggestive of within-group differences in the relevance of lability to BPD). Results also revealed synchrony (i.e., positive relations) between each possible pair of emotions, regardless of BPD status. Follow-up regression analyses suggest the importance of accounting for lability when examining the role of synchrony in BPD, as the relation of SCE-Anger synchrony to BPD symptom severity was moderated by Anger and SCE lability. Specifically, synchronous changes in SCE and Anger were associated with greater BPD symptom severity when large shifts in SCE were paired with minor shifts in Anger. (PsycINFO Database Record

Evaluating the Effectiveness of ACT for Anxiety Disorders in a Self-Help Context: Outcomes From a Randomized Wait-List Controlled Trial.

Rigorous evaluations of cognitive behavioral self-help books for anxiety in pure self-help contexts are lacking. The present study evaluated the effectiveness of an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) self-help workbook for anxiety-related concerns, with no therapist contact, in an international sample. Participants (N=503; 94% mental health diagnosis) were randomized to an immediate workbook (n=256) or wait-list condition (n=247). Assessments at pretreatment, 12weeks, 6months, and 9months evaluated anxiety and related symptoms, quality of life, and ACT treatment processes (e.g., psychological flexibility). Participants in the wait-list arm crossed over to the workbook following the 12-week assessment. The workbook condition yielded significant improvements on all assessments from pre- to posttreatment relative to wait-list, and these gains were maintained at follow-ups. The pattern observed in the wait-list condition was virtually identical to the active treatment arm after receiving the workbook, but not before. Attrition was notable, but supplemental analyses suggested dropout did not influence treatment effects for all but one measure. Overall, findings provide preliminary support for the effectiveness of this self-help workbook and suggest ACT-based self-help bibliotherapy might be a promising low-cost intervention for people experiencing significant anxiety-related concerns.

Factor structure and gender stability in the multidimensional condom attitudes scale.

Sexually transmitted infections continue to trouble the United States and can be attenuated through increased condom use. Attitudes about condoms are an important multidimensional factor that can affect sexual health choices and have been successfully measured using the Multidimensional Condom Attitudes Scale (MCAS). Such attitudes have the potential to vary between men and women, yet little work has been undertaken to identify if the MCAS accurately captures attitudes without being influenced by underlying gender biases. We examined the factor structure and gender invariance on the MCAS using confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory, within-subscale differential item functioning analyses. More than 770 participants provided data via the Internet. Results of differential item functioning analyses identified three items as differentially functioning between the genders, and removal of these items is recommended. Findings confirmed the previously hypothesized multidimensional nature of condom attitudes and the five-factor structure of the MCAS even after the removal of the three problematic items. In general, comparisons across genders using the MCAS seem reasonable from a methodological standpoint. Results are discussed in terms of improving sexual health research and interventions.