Revision Open Reduction and Internal Fixation of Ankle and Syndesmosis Malunions.

Malreduction of the fibula and syndesmosis remains a common complication associated with the surgical management of ankle fractures. This malreduction leads to profound alterations in the biomechanics of the ankle, leading to chronic pain and premature degenerative changes of the ankle. It is possible to correct many fibular and syndesmotic malunions with reconstructive surgical techniques, of which there are several for revising and salvaging the malreduced ankle mortise and tibiofibular syndesmosis.

Dual Nonlocked Plating as an Alternative to Locked Plating for Comminuted Distal Fibula Fractures: A Biomechanical Comparison Study.

The purpose of this cadaveric study was to compare the biomechanical properties of dual nonlocked plating and single-locked plating using matched pairs of isolated fibula specimens. Fractures were simulated in 10 matched pairs of isolated cadaveric fibulae and plated with a single lateral locking plate for right-sided specimens, or with a one-third tubular plate and a 7-hole 2.4-mm minifragment adaption plate for left-sided specimens. An external rotation torque was applied at a rate of 1°/second, and torque at 10° was measured. Each fibula specimen was evaluated using a micro computed tomography scanner, and bone mineral density was calculated as milligrams of bone per cubic centimeter of volume. Dual nonlocked plating and locked plating specimens demonstrated torque measurements that were not significantly different at 10° of external rotation (1.48 N·m and 1.92 N·m, respectively; p = .093). The stiffness of the dual nonlocked plated and locked plating constructs were not significantly different (p = .228 and p = .543, respectively). The effect of bone mineral density on maximum torque at failure was not a reliable predictor of maximum torque in either the dual nonlocked plating or locked plating specimens (R2 = 0.548 and R2 = 0.096, respectively). We found no differences in torque at 10° of external rotation or stiffness between locking plate and dual nonlocking plate fixation constructs. This study provides evidence that dual nonlocked plating likely constitutes adequate fixation in situations in which a locking plate is being considered for comminuted distal fibula fractures.

Salvage of failed total ankle arthroplasty with fusion using structural allograft and internal fixation.

BACKGROUND: The current study presents our experience with conversion of failed TAA to fusion. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective review of all failed total ankles converted to fusion from 1999 to 2009 was performed at our institution. RESULTS: Twelve total ankles were converted to isolated ankle fusions (Group I) and 12 converted to ankle-hindfoot fusions (Group II). All isolated ankle fusions were stabilized with anterior plate and screws with one nonunion. Structural bone graft was used in ten of 12. Mean outcome scores using the AOFAS-Ankle/Hindfoot score and Maryland Foot Score improved from preoperative values of 43 ± 13 and 56.7 ± 14 to 67 ± 12 and 71.2 ± 16 postoperatively, respectively (p < 0.05). All Group II ankle-hindfoot fusion patients were fixed using either anterior plate and screws, intramedullary nail, or a combination nail:plate construct. All received structural allografts. Five patients developed nonunion including four subtalar nonunions Preoperative scores on the AOFAS-AHS and MFS were 48.8 ± 14 and 58.3 ± 14. Postoperative scores were 51.2 ± 17 for the AOFAS and 64.5 ± 14 for the MFS. These changes were not statistically significant. However, the difference in nonunions was significant, p < 0.05. CONCLUSION: Failed total ankles can be successfully converted to fusion using structural bone graft and internal fixation. The primary risk appears to be nonunion of the subtalar joint when ankle-hindfoot fusion is required. We believe this risk can be decreased by using a separate approach for preparation of the subtalar joint.

Postoperative assessment of vascularity of the femoral head after surgical hip dislocation.

Treatment for femoroacetabular impingement includes surgical hip dislocation and recontouring the femoral head-neck junction. However, a potential complication of this procedure is avascular necrosis. The purpose of this study was to assess radiographically the vascularity of the femoral head after surgical hip dislocation. Ten patients underwent surgical hip dislocation and recontouring of the femoral head-neck junction for femoroacetabular impingement. Postoperatively, all 10 patients underwent magnetic resonance imaging of the hip. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed no evidence of osteonecrosis in all patients. This study provides clear radiographic evidence that surgical hip dislocation may be performed without causing avascular necrosis of the femoral head.

Operative Treatment of the Malunited Fibula Fracture.

Failure to anatomically reduce and stabilize the fractured distal fibula can result in malunion of the fibula and malreduction of the ankle mortise. Fibular malunion results in altered ankle joint biomechanics which often leads to the development of pain, stiffness, and premature joint degeneration. Fortunately, many fibular malunions can be successfully salvaged using osteotomy techniques to restore anatomic fibular length and rotation. Different osteotomy techniques are indicated depending on the location and characteristics of the malunion. In this review, the oblique fibular osteotomy is described for the reconstruction of SER-type fibular fractures. For more proximal fibular malunion, the transverse osteotomy technique with lengthening and structural bone graft is reviewed. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level V, expert opinion.

Achilles tendon injuries.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The purpose of this study is to review the current literature of Achilles tendon injuries, specifically chronic tendinopathy and acute ruptures in regard to etiology, diagnosis, treatment options, and outcomes. RECENT FINDINGS: The incidence of Achilles tendon injuries is increasing, but the necessity for surgical intervention is decreasing due to improved conservative therapies, which may provide comparable outcomes without the implied surgical risk. If surgery is undertaken, no difference has been noted between open and minimally invasive techniques. The majority of patients are able to return to pre-injury level of activity, with the elite athlete as an unfortunate exception. Achilles injuries can be devastating injuries, but if addressed early and appropriately, most patients have good self-reported long-term outcomes regardless of the treatment modality implemented. Further research is needed into the etiology, potential preventative measures, and longer-term outcomes of the different treatment options for wide range of Achilles pathology.

Correction of Hammertoe Deformity With Novel Intramedullary PIP Fusion Device Versus K-Wire Fixation.

BACKGROUND: K-wire fixation has been the most common method of fixation for hammertoe deformity. However intramedullary devices are gaining ground in both number of available choices and in procedures performed. This study aimed to compare the outcomes of hammertoe correction performed with K-wire fixation versus a novel intramedullary fusion device (CannuLink). METHODS: A retrospective review of hammertoe correction by a single surgeon was performed from June 2011 to December 2013. Sixty patients (95 toes) underwent K-wire fixation and 39 patients (54 toes) underwent fusion with the CannuLink implant. Average age was 61.7 years and 61.4 years, respectively. Average length of follow-up was 12.9 and 12.3 months, respectively. Patients were evaluated for medical comorbidities, smoking status, inflammatory arthritis, peripheral vascular disease, peripheral neuropathy, pre- and postoperative visual analog pain scale, bony union percentage, revision rate, complications (hardware and surgery-related), and persistent symptoms at last follow-up. There was no significant difference in demographics or comorbidities between the 2 groups ( P > .05). RESULTS: In the K-wire group, 16 patients (18 toes) remained symptomatic at last follow-up (27%). Nine toes (9.5%) had recurrent deformity, 3 toes (3%) developed a late infection because of the recurrent deformity, and 1 toe (1%) developed partial numbness. One patient suffered a calf deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and peroneal nerve neuritis, 1 patient developed foot drop, and 3 patients continued to complain of pain. Five toes required revision surgery (5.3%). In the intramedullary group, 3 (7.7%) patients remained symptomatic and all were associated with a complication. One patient developed chronic regional pain syndrome in the foot, a calf DVT, and a nonfatal pulmonary embolus. A second patient developed a painless recurrent deformity. A third patient had wound dehiscence. Nobody had hardware failure or required a second operation. CONCLUSION: The CannuLink intramedullary device for hammertoe correction resulted in fewer complications, only 1 recurrent deformity, and no reoperations compared with K-wire fixation. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, retrospective comparative study.

Arthroscopic versus open shoulder stabilization for recurrent anterior instability: a prospective randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Arthroscopic stabilization for anterior shoulder instability has been reported to result in a higher rate of recurrent instability compared to traditional open techniques. PURPOSE: To test the null hypothesis that there is no difference in the clinical outcomes in patients with recurrent anterior shoulder instability treated with open or arthroscopic stabilization. STUDY DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial; Level of evidence, 1. METHODS: A consecutive series of 64 patients with recurrent anterior shoulder instability were randomized to receive either arthroscopic or open stabilization by a single surgeon. Magnetic resonance arthrogram studies were obtained preoperatively. These findings were compared to arthroscopic findings. Postoperative evaluations included range of motion, stability, and subjective assessments including Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation, Simple Shoulder Test, Western Ontario Instability Index, and University of California, Los Angeles evaluation. Failure was defined as a second dislocation, recurrent subluxation, or symptoms precluding return to previous work or unrestricted active military duty. RESULTS: Sixty-one patients, 29 who received open stabilization and 32 who received arthroscopic stabilization, were evaluated at a mean of 32 months postoperatively (range, 24-48 months). Patient demographics were equivalent. Preoperative magnetic resonance arthrogram findings were confirmed at arthroscopic examination. The mean operative time was significantly shorter for the arthroscopic repairs (59 vs 149 minutes; P < .001). There were 3 clinical failures (2 open stabilizations, 1 arthroscopic stabilization) by the established criteria. There was a statistically significant improvement from preoperative to postoperative Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation scores in both groups (P < .001). The mean loss of motion (compared to the contralateral shoulder) was greater in the open shoulders. Subjective evaluations were equal in both groups. CONCLUSION: Clinical outcomes after arthroscopic and open stabilization were comparable. Preoperative magnetic resonance arthrograms in shoulders with anterior instability allow an accurate diagnosis of intra-articular abnormality that correlates well with operative findings. Arthroscopic stabilization for recurrent anterior shoulder instability can be performed safely; the clinical outcomes are comparable to those after traditional open stabilization.

The relationship between tears of the peroneus brevis tendon and the distal extent of its muscle belly: an MRI study.

BACKGROUND: Anomalous distal insertion of the peroneus brevis muscle belly has been implicated as a possible etiology of tears of the peroneus brevis tendon. The purpose of this study was to assess whether patients with operatively confirmed tears of the peroneus brevis tendons have a more distally located musculotendinous junction. METHODS: A retrospective review was done to identify all patients in whom direct inspection of the peroneal tendons was done between 1999 and 2004. The operative reports were evaluated, and all in whom a peroneal tendon tear was confirmed were included in the study group, Group I (29 patients). Group II represented an operative control group and consisted of all patients who had operative inspection of the peroneal tendons but did not have a tear (30 patients). Group III represented a radiographic control group and consisted of patients who had MRI of the ankle for reasons unrelated to lateral ankle symptoms (30 patients). For each patient, the vertical distance from the musculotendinous junction of the peroneus brevis tendon to the tip of the fibula was measured on sagittal MRI. The role of gender also was examined. The average distance between the musculotendinous junction of the peroneus brevis tendon to the distal fibula was calculated solely for men and women in all three groups. Statistical comparison of the groups was performed using the Mann-Whitney test. Interobserver reliability was determined by calculating Cronbach's Alpha coefficient. RESULTS: The average distance from the musculotendinous junction to the tip of the fibula was 33.1 cm, 41.2 cm, and 46.3 cm in Groups I, II, and III, respectively. The average distance in Group I was statistically significantly lower than the average distance in both Groups II and III (p < 0.05). Interestingly, the difference in the distance between Groups II and III also was statistically significant (p < 0.05). The average distances in both men and women were statistically significantly different (p < 0.05) among the three groups. CONCLUSION: It has been hypothesized that tears of the peroneus brevis tendon result from distal insertion of the peroneus brevis muscle belly. This study provides radiographic support for this hypothesis.

Process and tubercle fractures of the hindfoot.

Process and tubercle fractures of the talus and calcaneus can be a source of significant pain and dysfunction. Successful management requires extensive knowledge of the complex osseoligamentous anatomy of the hindfoot. The large posterior process of the talus is composed of a medial and a lateral tubercle; an os trigonum may exist posterior to the lateral tubercle. The talus has a lateral process that articulates with the fibula and subtalar joint; the calcaneus possesses a frequently injured anterior process that articulates with the cuboid. Injury to these hindfoot structures is caused by inversion and eversion of the ankle, which can occur during athletic activity. These injuries often are misdiagnosed as ankle sprains. A high degree of clinical suspicion is warranted, and specialized radiographs or other imaging modalities may be required for accurate diagnosis. Nonsurgical management with cast immobilization is frequently successful when the fracture is correctly diagnosed acutely. Large fragments may be amenable to open reduction and internal fixation. Untreated, chronic injuries can cause significant pain and functional impairment that may be improved substantially with late surgical intervention.

Fibular position in relation to lateral ankle instability.

BACKGROUND: The position of the fibula within the ankle mortise may be a factor contributing to recurrent ankle instability. The current study was performed to determine whether significant differences in fibular position exist in a population of patients who underwent lateral ankle stabilization procedures. The hypothesis that a fibula positioned posteriorly within the mortise predisposes the ankle to chronic instability was evaluated. METHODS: Sixty-five CT/MRI scans of patients who underwent lateral ankle stabilization procedures from 1998 to 2001 were reviewed. The position of the fibula in relation to the tibia at the ankle mortise was expressed as the axial malleolar index (AMI). A greater AMI corresponds to a more posterior fibula. The AMI was also calculated from 65 CT/MRI scans performed on control patients who had no ankle instability. RESULTS: The average AMI in the study group was 17 degrees +/- 6 degrees (SD) compared with an average of 9 degrees +/- 4 degrees (SD) in the control group (p <.01). Therefore, the fibula was nearly twice as posterior in patients undergoing ankle reconstruction. In 42/65 (65%) study patients, the AMI was greater than 15 degrees. Only 5/65 (8%) control patients had AMI values greater than 15 degrees. This corresponds to an eightfold greater likelihood of AMI greater that 15 degrees in the instability group than in the control group. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports the hypothesis that a posteriorly positioned fibula predisposes to ankle instability.

Avulsion fractures of the medial tubercle of the posterior process of the talus.

Avulsion fracture of the medial tubercle of the posterior process of the talus occurs after forceful dorsiflexion-pronation of the ankle. We evaluated five patients who had sustained this fracture while participating in sporting activities. Two patients were correctly diagnosed acutely and treated with immobilization and limited weightbearing. Avulsion fractures in the remaining three patients went undiagnosed acutely. This group was treated with delayed operative excision for persistent posteromedial ankle pain. The patients were evaluated at a mean follow-up of 35 months using the AOFAS Ankle-Hindfoot Scale. The two patients diagnosed and treated acutely achieved excellent results. The three patients with missed fractures did poorly, yet achieved comparable results after late excision. Our results suggest that prompt diagnosis and appropriate management yields reliably good outcomes. Untreated avulsion fractures predictably do poorly. For these patients, late excision can provide significant functional and symptomatic improvement.

Coxa saltans externa treated with Z-plasty of the iliotibial tract in a military population.

Coxa saltans, or snapping hip, can be attributable to a number of causes. Coxa saltans externa typically occurs when the thickened portion of the iliotibial band snaps over the greater trochanter as the hip is flexed. This condition generally resolves with a course of nonoperative treatment. We have treated three patients with Z-plasty of the iliotibial band, which has the highest published success rate in the English language literature. Only one of three patients was able to return to full activities postoperatively. In our small series, this method of surgical treatment in an active duty military population yielded less than optimal results.

Salvage arthrodesis after failed ankle replacement: surgical decision making.

Fusion remains the primary technique to salvage the failed total ankle. Fusions present a daunting challenge because of the large bone defect left by the explanted arthroplasty components and the difficulty obtaining stable fixation. Limiting the fusion to the tibiotalar joint preserves the essential motion of the hindfoot. However, because of loss of talar bone stock, it is often necessary to include the subtalar joint in a tibiotalocalcaneal fusion. This article discusses how to determine whether an isolated ankle or ankle-hindfoot fusion is indicated and presents surgical techniques for filling the bone defect and achieving stable internal fixation.