Prognosis in dysphagic patients who are eating and drinking with acknowledged risk: results from the evaluation of the FORWARD project.

BACKGROUND: patients with a permanently unsafe swallow may choose to eat and drink with acknowledged risk (EDAR). Informed decision-making and advance care planning depend on prognosis, but no data have yet been published on outcomes after EDAR decisions. METHODS: the study was undertaken in 555 hospital inpatients' (mean [SD] age: 83 {12}) EDAR supported by the Feeding via the Oral Route with Acknowledged Risk of Deterioration care bundle between January 2015 and November 2019. Data were collected prospectively on clinical characteristics, dates of discharge, readmissions and death (where relevant). Kaplan-Meier survival functions and readmission risks per surviving patient per month were calculated. RESULTS: mortality is 56% in the first 3 months after discharge but then mortality risk sharply decreases. The 3-month survival in EDAR patients was more likely in those <75 years of age, those with Parkinson's disease or a structural oral lesion as the dominating cause of dysphagia and those with mental capacity regarding EDAR decisions. Readmission risk in the 3 months post-discharge is 21% but reduces to 12% thereafter (P < 0.001). Thirty-eight percent of readmissions are secondary to EDAR-linked conditions such as chest infections and reduced oral intake. CONCLUSION: there is a high mortality and readmission risk after an EDAR decision but much of this is frontloaded into the first 3 months, with a relatively favourable prognosis thereafter. This may be an appropriate time-point to reassess the plan for eating and drinking such that it continues to reflect the most appropriate balance of risk, comfort and nutrition.

Approaches to Eating and Drinking with Acknowledged Risk: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Patients with dysphagia may consider eating and drinking with acknowledged risk (EDAR) instead of artificial hydration/nutrition. Timely consideration of complex issues is required including dysphagia reversibility, risk/benefit discussions, patient wishes, their capacity and best interests. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to establish if EDAR protocols improve care through a systematic literature review with a secondary aim to explore important factors for the development and success of a protocol. METHODS: PUBMED, MEDLINE, CINAHL and EMBASE were searched for English language articles to May 2019 with terms related to EDAR, dysphagia and end of life. Articles were agreed for inclusion by three independent reviewers. Levels of evidence were assessed using the modified Sackett scale. Study themes were identified and discussed. RESULTS: 8 articles met the inclusion criteria with varied methodology. The highest level of evidence was III (cohort study). Most were limited to patients with dementia, stroke, in older person's wards or residential homes. Three articles described a systematic approach to EDAR for in-patients, reporting reductions in days nil-by-mouth until feeding plans are made and improvements in documentation of decision making, nutrition plans and capacity assessment. Five papers explored the views and knowledge of staff, patients and families/carers relating to EDAR and complex feeding decisions. Formal meta-analysis was not possible due to the level and mix of methodology. CONCLUSION: There is a paucity of evidence to determine if EDAR protocols improve care. However, support is emerging for a coordinated approach to managing EDAR. Findings suggest having a protocol is not enough; training and communication within teams is essential, together with incorporating feedback from patients and carers, and this justifies further work.

FORWARD (Feeding via the Oral Route With Acknowledged Risk of Deterioration): evaluation of a novel tool to support patients eating and drinking at risk of aspiration.

BACKGROUND: care of patients with a permanently unsafe swallow who are inappropriate for tube feeding is challenging. Eating and drinking with acknowledged risk (EDAR) may be an appropriate strategy but without clear decision making and communication patients may spend unnecessarily long 'nil by mouth' (NBM), they or their family may experience significant anxieties and advance care plans may not be made. METHODS: the FORWARD (Feeding via the Oral Route With Acknowledged Risk of Deterioration) care bundle was sequentially co-designed and embedded across different in-patient clinical services using 'plan-do-study-act' methodology to systematise best practice. Care before and after FORWARD's implementation was evaluated using a time-series analysis of 305 'EDAR patients' (19 in 6 months pre-FORWARD; 42 in a 12-month 'pilot'; 244 patients in the subsequent 27 months). RESULTS: median (IQR) days patients were NBM without an alternative feeding route reduced significantly from 2 (1-4) pre-FORWARD to 0 (0-2) in the 'pilot' and 0 (0) post-'pilot' (P < 0.05). G-chart analysis demonstrated sustained performance across time and different clinical settings. Implementation of FORWARD significantly improved documentation of capacity assessment (42%→98%), discussions with next of kin (47%→98%) and onward communication of feeding plans (67%→81%). In wards where FORWARD was introduced, rate of aspiration pneumonia (a 'balancing measure' sensitive to harm associated with EDAR) increased at half the rate of dysphagia (0.8%/year versus 1.6%/year). CONCLUSION: the FORWARD care bundle supported complex decision-making around EDAR in patients with persistent dysphagia. The benefits of FORWARD were shown to be sustained over time and in a wide in-patient context.

Evaluation of a simulation training programme for geriatric medicine.

BACKGROUND: geriatrics encompasses diverse medical, social and ethical challenges requiring a multidimensional, interdisciplinary approach. Recent reports have highlighted failings in the care of older people. It is therefore vital that trainees in geriatrics are afforded opportunities to develop skills in managing this complex population. Simulation has been adopted as a teaching tool in medicine; however, evidence for its use in geriatrics has been limited to small, single-site studies primarily involving role-play or discrete clinical skills training. METHODS: a standardised, two centre, multimodal, interprofessional, geriatrics simulation training programme was developed using curriculum-mapped scenarios in which the patient perspective was central. Simulation techniques used included high-fidelity patient manikins, actors with integrated clinical skills using part-task trainers and role-play exercises. A mixed-methods evaluation was used to analyse data from participants before and after training. RESULTS: eighty-nine candidates attended 12 similar courses over 2 years. Thematic analysis of candidate feedback was supportive of simulation as a useful tool, with benefits for both technical and non-technical skills. Candidates commented that simulation was a valuable training modality addressing curriculum areas rarely taught formally including continence assessment, end-of-life decisions and multidisciplinary situations. Quantitative analysis of pre- and post-course questionnaires revealed a significant improvement of self-reported confidence in managing geriatric scenarios (mean improvement 11.5%; P < 0.001). DISCUSSION: this study demonstrated the feasibility of a standardised simulation training programme across two sites in geriatrics. Simulation training affords situational learning without compromising patient safety and is an exciting and novel method of delivering teaching for geriatrics that could be integrated into national training curricula.

Syringomyelia in an older patient.

We describe the case of an 80-year-old man who presented with lower limb upper motor neurone weakness and spinothalamic tract sensory deficit secondary to previously undiagnosed syringomyelia. The case highlights the need for methodical history, examination and investigation in elderly patients to achieve diagnostic accuracy.

High Prevalence of New Clinically Significant Findings in Patients With Embolic Stroke of Unknown Source Evaluated by Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

BACKGROUND: Embolic stroke of unknown source (ESUS) accounts for 1 in 6 ischemic strokes. Current guidelines do not recommend routine cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging in ESUS, and beyond the identification of cardioembolic sources, there are no data assessing new clinical findings from CMR in ESUS. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of new cardiac and noncardiac findings and to determine their impact on clinical care in patients with ESUS. METHODS AND RESULTS: In this prospective, multicenter, observational study, CMR imaging was performed within 3 months of ESUS. All scans were reported according to standard clinical practice. A new clinical finding was defined as one not previously identified through prior clinical evaluation. A clinically significant finding was defined as one resulting in further investigation, follow-up, or treatment. A change in patient care was defined as initiation of medical, interventional, surgical, or palliative care. From 102 patients recruited, 96 underwent CMR imaging. One or more new clinical findings were observed in 59 patients (61%). New findings were clinically significant in 48 (81%) of these patients. Of 40 patients with a new clinically significant cardiac finding, 21 (53%) experienced a change in care (medical therapy, n=15; interventional/surgical procedure, n=6). In 12 patients with a new clinically significant extracardiac finding, 6 (50%) experienced a change in care (medical therapy, n=4; palliative care, n=2). CONCLUSIONS: CMR imaging identifies new clinically significant cardiac and noncardiac findings in half of patients with recent ESUS. Advanced cardiovascular screening should be considered in patients with ESUS. REGISTRATION: URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov; Unique identifier: NCT04555538.

Use of the Rehabilitation Treatment Specification System (RTSS) in the management of nitrous oxide (N2O)-induced spinal cord injury.

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is an inhaled anaesthetic gas and a popular intoxicant. Excessive recreational use can cause spinal cord myelopathy. Previous studies have discussed the medical management. However, none have specified the sensorimotor rehabilitation management. This case report documents the investigations, physical rehabilitation and functional outcomes in two cases of N2O-associated myelopathy. Both presented with lower limb strength and sensorimotor integration impairments resulting in ataxic ambulation. Dorsal column signal abnormality was observed on T2-weighted MRI in one case. Myelopathy was diagnosed based on clinical presentation and both were treated with vitamin B12 Rehabilitation was conceived and specified using the Rehabilitation Treatment Specification System (RTSS). Both cases achieved independent indoor gait on hospital discharge, and full function at 9 months in one case. Appropriate and timely medical management and reasoned rehabilitation provided excellent functional outcomes for N2O-related myelopathy. By using the RTSS, reasoned rehabilitation efficacy can be tested in the future.

In Situ Simulation Training for Frailty.

BACKGROUND: People living with frailty account for a significant proportion of hospital inpatients and are at increased risk of adverse events during admission. The understanding of frailty remains variable among hospital staff, and there is a need for effective frailty training across multidisciplinary teams. Simulation is known to be advantageous for improving human factor skills in multidisciplinary teams. In situ simulation can increase accessibility and promote ward team learning, but its effectiveness with respect to frailty has not been explored. METHOD: A single-centre, multi-fidelity, inter-professional in situ frailty simulation programme was developed. One-hour sessions were delivered weekly using frailty-based clinical scenarios. Mixed-method evaluation was used, with data collected pre- and post-session for comparison. RESULTS: In total, 86 multidisciplinary participants attended 19 sessions. There were significant improvements in self-efficacy rating across 10 of 12 human factor domains and in all frailty domains (p < 0.05). The common learning themes were situational awareness, communication and teamwork. Participants commented on the value of learning within ward teams and having the opportunity to debrief. CONCLUSION: In situ simulation can improve the self-efficacy of clinical and human factor skills related to frailty. The results are limited by the nature of self-reporting methods, and further studies assessing behavioural change and clinical outcomes are warranted.

The Impact of Atrial Fibrillation Treatment Strategies on Cognitive Function.

There is increasing evidence to suggest that atrial fibrillation is associated with a heightened risk of dementia. The mechanism of interaction is unclear. Atrial fibrillation-induced cerebral infarcts, hypoperfusion, systemic inflammation, and anticoagulant therapy-induced cerebral microbleeds, have been proposed to explain the link between these conditions. An understanding of the pathogenesis of atrial fibrillation-associated cognitive decline may enable the development of treatment strategies targeted towards the prevention of dementia in atrial fibrillation patients. The aim of this review is to explore the impact that existing atrial fibrillation treatment strategies may have on cognition and the putative mechanisms linking the two conditions. This review examines how components of the 'Atrial Fibrillation Better Care pathway' (stroke risk reduction, rhythm control, rate control, and risk factor management) may influence the trajectory of atrial fibrillation-associated cognitive decline. The requirements for further prospective studies to understand the mechanistic link between atrial fibrillation and dementia and to develop treatment strategies targeted towards the prevention of atrial fibrillation-associated cognitive decline, are highlighted.

AF and in-hospital mortality in COVID-19 patients.

Background: There are conflicting data on whether new-onset atrial fibrillation (AF) is independently associated with poor outcomes in COVID-19 patients. This study represents the largest dataset curated by manual chart review comparing clinical outcomes between patients with sinus rhythm, pre-existing AF, and new-onset AF. Objective: The primary aim of this study was to assess patient outcomes in COVID-19 patients with sinus rhythm, pre-existing AF, and new-onset AF. The secondary aim was to evaluate predictors of new-onset AF in patients with COVID-19 infection. Methods: This was a single-center retrospective study of patients with a confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 admitted between March and September 2020. Patient demographic data, medical history, and clinical outcome data were manually collected. Adjusted comparisons were performed following propensity score matching between those with pre-existing or new-onset AF and those without AF. Results: The study population comprised of 1241 patients. A total of 94 (7.6%) patients had pre-existing AF and 42 (3.4%) patients developed new-onset AF. New-onset AF was associated with increased in-hospital mortality before (odds ratio [OR] 3.58, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.78-7.06, P < .005) and after (OR 2.80, 95% CI 1.01-7.77, P < .005) propensity score matching compared with the no-AF group. However, pre-existing AF was not independently associated with in-hospital mortality compared with patients with no AF (postmatching OR: 1.13, 95% CI 0.57-2.21, P = .732). Conclusion: New-onset AF, but not pre-existing AF, was independently associated with elevated mortality in patients hospitalised with COVID-19. This observation highlights the need for careful monitoring of COVID-19 patients with new-onset AF. Further research is needed to explain the mechanistic relationship between new-onset AF and clinical outcomes in COVID-19 patients.

Telemedicine versus face-to-face evaluation in the delivery of thrombolysis for acute ischaemic stroke: a single centre experience.

BACKGROUND: Telemedicine is increasingly used in the UK to deliver thrombolysis. It is primarily used to enable assessment of people presenting with an acute stroke by a remote specialist in stroke care, and to determine eligibility for thrombolysis with alteplase (recombinant tissue plasminogen activator). This study aims to evaluate the process of acute stroke care, safety and outcome profiles when comparing face-to-face evaluation and telemedicine in the delivery of thrombolysis. METHODS: This was a retrospective single centre cohort study, evaluating patients thrombolysed from July 2007 to December 2009 inclusive. All patients were given treatment within a 3-hour window from onset of symptoms. Of the 97 patients thrombolysed, 45 (46%) were evaluated by telemedicine. Process times of the steps taken to deliver thrombolysis for the two groups were compared. The authors include the rates of symptomatic intracranial haemorrhage (SICH). Outcome data include 3-month mortality and functional status. RESULTS: Process times were significantly better in face-to-face: Admission to CT (p=0.001), CT to treatment (p≤0.001) and admission to treatment (p≤0.001). SICH occurred in four patients (7.7%) in the face-to-face group compared with the two patients (4.4%) in the telemedicine group (p=0.7). Favourable outcome: a modified Rankin score of 0-2 was observed in 19 patients (36.5%) in the face-to-face group compared with 19 patients (42%) in the telemedicine group (p=0.9). CONCLUSIONS: This analysis shows that the use of telemedicine compared with face-to-face evaluation is feasible in the delivery of thrombolysis during out of hours. There are several areas of our emergency process of hyper-acute stroke care that need improving when using telemedicine.

Transient unilateral weakness: is it a transient ischaemic attack?

Transient ischaemic attack is an emergency medical condition that causes brief negative focal neurological symptoms such as unilateral weakness. The symptoms herald a high risk of stroke and hence require urgent assessment. The challenge lies in the brevity and compendium of associated symptoms that can 'mimic' a plethora of other conditions. The result is a high rate of referrals to transient ischaemic attack clinics for these stroke mimics. This article highlights the diagnostic challenges in transient ischaemic attack with relevance to unilateral weakness.

Atrial CARdiac Magnetic resonance imaging in patients with embolic stroke of unknown source without documented Atrial Fibrillation (CARM-AF): Study design and clinical protocol.

Background: Initiation of anticoagulation therapy in ischemic stroke patients is contingent on a clinical diagnosis of atrial fibrillation (AF). Results from previous studies suggest thromboembolic risk may predate clinical manifestations of AF. Early identification of this cohort of patients may allow early initiation of anticoagulation and reduce the risk of secondary stroke. Objective: This study aims to produce a substrate-based predictive model using cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) and baseline noninvasive electrocardiographic investigations to improve the identification of patients at risk of future thromboembolism. Methods: CARM-AF is a prospective, multicenter, observational cohort study. Ninety-two patients will be recruited following an embolic stroke of unknown source (ESUS) and undergo atrial CMR followed by insertion of an implantable loop recorder (ILR) as per routine clinical care within 3 months of index stroke. Remote ILR follow-up will be used to allocate patients to a study or control group determined by the presence or absence of AF as defined by ILR monitoring. Results: Baseline data collection, noninvasive electrocardiographic data analysis, and imaging postprocessing will be performed at the time of enrollment. Primary analysis will be performed following 12 months of continuous ILR monitoring, with interim and delayed analyses performed at 6 months and 2 and 3 years, respectively. Conclusion: The CARM-AF Study will use atrial structural and electrocardiographic metrics to identify patients with AF, or at high risk of developing AF, who may benefit from early initiation of anticoagulation.

Simulation training for hyperacute stroke unit nurses.

National clinical guidelines have emphasized the need to identify acute stroke as a clinical priority for early assessment and treatment of patients on hyperacute stroke units. Nurses working on hyperacute stroke units require stroke specialist training and development of competencies in dealing with neurological emergencies and working in multidisciplinary teams. Educational theory suggests that experiential learning with colleagues in real-life settings may provide transferable results to the workplace with improved performance. Simulation training has been shown to deliver situational training without compromising patient safety and has been shown to improve both technical and non-technical skills (McGaghie et al, 2010). This article describes the role that simulation training may play for nurses working on hyperacute stroke units explaining the modalities available and the educational potential. The article also outlines the development of a pilot course involving directly relevant clinical scenarios for hyperacute stroke unit patient care and assesses the benefits of simulation training for hyperacute stroke unit nurses, in terms of clinical performance and non-clinical abilities including leadership and communication.

An update on hyper-acute management of ischaemic stroke.

This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of key advances on various aspects of hyper-acute management of acute ischaemic stroke. These include neuroimaging, acute stroke unit care, management of blood pressure, reperfusion therapy including intravenous thrombolysis, mechanical thrombectomy and decompressive hemicraniectomy for malignant stroke syndrome. The challenge ahead is to ensure these evidence-based treatments are now being delivered and implemented to maximise the benefits across the population.

Supporting the transition to becoming a medical registrar.

INTRODUCTION: Physician training is seeing increasing numbers of doctors adopting the role of medical registrar. Non-clinical as well as clinical responsibilities are a source of great anxiety prior to trainees assuming this role. METHODS: A standardised, blended, 1-day course to address the needs of doctors transitioning to become a medical registrar was designed and delivered across four hospitals. A mixed methods evaluation approach was employed to assess the effect of the course. RESULTS: Thirty-four trainees approaching the transition to becoming a medical registrar participated. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of participants' written feedback showed a significant pre- to post-course increase in candidates' self-reported confidence in undertaking the medical registrar role along with learning in non-technical skills. DISCUSSION: This course was shown to be effective in helping to improve the confidence of trainees approaching the medical registrar role. The carefully designed standardised format may facilitate wider expansion of such training.

A Springboard for physicians returning to practice.

BACKGROUND: Many physicians take time out of training and have decreased confidence and poor performance ratings on their return. Courses employing multiple educational methods have been shown to be effective in easing learners into new clinical roles during transition periods but, to date, there is limited evidence for courses to support trainees returning to practice (RTP). METHODS: A 2-day course, named Springboard, was developed, specifically to address the needs of trainee physicians RTP. It employed a blended, multi-modal approach to learning, including lectures, workshops, case-based sessions, interactive panel discussions, small group teaching, peer-led practical advice sessions and simulation training. Springboard was delivered eight times between 2014 and 2019 with a total of 540 doctors attending. We analysed participant pre-and post-course questionnaire feedback. RESULTS: Reasons for doctors taking time out of training included parental leave, research, fellowships in education and leadership, health-related absence and career breaks. Time out of training ranged between 3 months and 6 years. A significant pre/post-course increase in candidates' self-reported leadership skills and confidence in being prepared to return to practice was demonstrated alongside an appreciation of a multi-modal, 'boot camp' course delivered by expert faculty and a networking experience. DISCUSSION: Dedicated training courses tailored to the needs of physicians RTP provide an opportunity for improving confidence relating to many areas of clinical and non-clinical practice as well as providing an environment for networking and sharing experiences. Further work would be valuable to establish the potential of providing this on a larger scale.

Secondary Stroke Prevention Following Embolic Stroke of Unknown Source in the Absence of Documented Atrial Fibrillation: A Clinical Review.

Approximately one-third of ischemic strokes are classified as cryptogenic strokes. The risk of stroke recurrence in these patients is significantly elevated with up to one-third of patients with cryptogenic stroke experiencing a further stroke within 10 years. While anticoagulation is the mainstay of treatment for secondary stroke prevention in the context of documented atrial fibrillation (AF), it is estimated that up to 25% of patients with cryptogenic stroke have undiagnosed AF. Furthermore, the historical acceptance of a causal relationship between AF and stroke has recently come under scrutiny, with evidence to suggest that embolic stroke risk may be elevated even in the absence of documented atrial fibrillation attributable to the presence of electrical and structural changes constituting an atrial cardiomyopathy. More recently, the term embolic stroke of unknown source has garnered increasing interest as a subset of patients with cryptogenic stroke in whom a minimum set of diagnostic investigations has been performed, and a nonlacunar infarct highly suspicious of embolic etiology is suspected but in the absence of an identifiable secondary cause of stroke. The ongoing ARCADIA (Atrial Cardiopathy and Antithrombotic Drugs in Prevention After Cryptogenic Stroke) randomized trial and ATTICUS (Apixiban for Treatment of Embolic Stroke of Undetermined Source) study seek to further define this novel term. This review summarizes the relationship between AF, embolic stroke, and atrial cardiomyopathy and provides an overview of the clinical relevance of cardiac imaging, electrocardiographic, and serum biomarkers in the assessment of AF and secondary stroke risk. The implications of these findings on therapeutic considerations is considered and gaps in the literature identified as areas for future study in risk stratifying this cohort of patients.

Stroke warning syndromes.

It is important for physicians to be aware of stroke warning syndromes because, although rare, there is a high associated risk of subsequent ischaemic infarction. Stroke warning syndromes present as stereotypical, recurrent transient episodes of focal neurological deficit, in the absence of cortical signs, occurring within a short period of time. They are broadly divided into two main subtypes, based on vascular territory: capsular warning syndrome and pontine warning syndrome. The exact underlying pathophysiology related to stroke warning syndromes is incompletely established, but proposed pathophysiological hypotheses for cerebral hypoperfusion include micro-atherosclerosis (cerebral small vessel disease) and haemodynamic instability (e.g. hypotension). Atherosclerotic disease involving small perforating arteries in the anterior circulation (e.g. lenticulostriatal arteries) gives rise to capsular warning syndrome and subsequent risk of capsular infarcts. Conversely, involvement of the posterior circulation pontine perforator arteries gives rise to pontine warning syndrome, which can result in paramedian pontine infarcts. Although the evidence is limited, recommended treatment modalities include permissive hypertension, intravenous recombinant tissue plasminogen activator, dual antiplatelet therapy and statins.