Thermal trait variation may buffer Southern Ocean phytoplankton from anthropogenic warming.

Despite the potential of standing genetic variation to rescue communities and shape future adaptation to climate change, high levels of uncertainty are associated with intraspecific trait variation in marine phytoplankton. Recent model intercomparisons have pointed to an urgent need to reduce uncertainty in the projected responses of marine ecosystems to climate change, including Southern Ocean (SO) surface waters, which are among the most rapidly warming habitats on Earth. Because SO phytoplankton growth responses to warming sea surface temperature (SST) are poorly constrained, we developed a high-throughput growth assay to simultaneously examine inter- and intra-specific thermal trait variation in a group of 43 taxonomically diverse and biogeochemically important SO phytoplankton called diatoms. We found significant differential growth performance among species across thermal traits, including optimum and maximum tolerated growth temperatures. Within species, coefficients of variation ranged from 3% to 48% among strains for those same key thermal traits. Using SO SST projections for 2100, we predicted biogeographic ranges that differed by up to 97% between the least and most tolerant strains for each species, illustrating the role that strain-specific differences in temperature response can play in shaping predictions of future phytoplankton biogeography. Our findings revealed the presence and scale of thermal trait variation in SO phytoplankton and suggest these communities may already harbour the thermal trait diversity required to withstand projected 21st-century SST change in the SO even under severe climate forcing scenarios.

Diatoms.org: supporting taxonomists, connecting communities.

Consistent identification of diatoms is a prerequisite for studying their ecology, biogeography, and successful application as environmental indicators. However, taxonomic consistency among observers has been difficult to achieve, because taxonomic information is scattered across numerous literature sources, presenting challenges to the diatomist. First, literature is often inaccessible because of cost, or its location in journals that are not widely circulated. Second, taxonomic revisions of diatoms are taking place faster than floras can be updated. Finally, taxonomic information is often contradictory across literature sources. These issues can be addressed by developing a content creation community dedicated to making taxonomic, ecological, and image-based data freely available for diatom researchers. Diatoms.org represents such a content curation community, providing open, online access to a vast amount of recent and historical information on North American diatom taxonomy and ecology. The content curation community aggregates existing taxonomic information, creates new content, and provides feedback in the form of corrections and notice of literature with nomenclatural changes. The website not only addresses the needs of experienced diatom scientists for consistent identification, but is also designed to meet users at their level of expertise, including engaging the lay public in the importance of diatom science. The website now contains over 1000 species pages contributed by over 100 content contributors, from students to established scientists. The project began with the intent to provide accurate information on diatom identification, ecology, and distribution using an approach that incorporates engaging design, user feedback, and advanced data access technology. In retrospect, the project that began as an "extended electronic book" has emerged not only as a means to support taxonomists, but for practitioners to communicate and collaborate, expanding the size of and benefits to the content curation community. In this paper, we outline the development of diatoms.org, document key elements of the project, examine ongoing challenges, and consider the unexpected emergent properties, including the value of diatoms.org as a source of data. Ultimately, if the field of diatom taxonomy, ecology, and biodiversity is to be relevant, a new generation of taxonomists needs to be trained and employed using new tools. We propose that diatoms.org is in a key position to serve as a hub of training and continuity for the study of diatom biodiversity and aquatic conditions.

Reduction of taxonomic bias in diatom species data.

Inconsistency in taxonomic identification and analyst bias impede the effective use of diatom data in regional and national stream and lake surveys. In this study, we evaluated the effect of existing protocols and a revised protocol on the precision of diatom species counts. The revised protocol adjusts five elements of sample preparation, taxon identification and enumeration, and quality control (QC) samples. We used six independent datasets to assess the effect of the adjustments on analytical outcomes. The first dataset was produced by five analysts from three laboratories following a standard protocol (Charles et al. 2002). The remaining datasets were produced by 2-3 analysts in 1-3 laboratories following a revised protocol. The revised protocol included the following modifications: 1) use of Battarbee settling chambers to prepare coverslips, 2) development of coordinated pre-count voucher floras based on morphological operational taxonomic units (mOTUs), 3) random assignment of samples to analysts, 4) post-count identification and documentation of taxa, and 5) increased QC samples. The revised protocol reduced taxonomic bias, as measured by reduction in analyst signal, and improved similarity among QC samples. Reduced taxonomic bias improves the performance of biological assessments, facilitates transparency across studies, and refines estimates of diatom species distributions.

Adjunct Extraction Techniques in Equine Dentistry.

Adjunct extraction techniques are used when the shape or integrity of the tooth, the shape or size of the patient's oral cavity, the location of the tooth, or the location of the proximal teeth prevents or complicates standard oral extraction. Techniques described and discussed include partial coronectomy, tooth sectioning, minimally invasive buccotomy, transbuccal screw extraction, and commissurotomy.

Taxonomic harmonization may reveal a stronger association between diatom assemblages and total phosphorus in large datasets.

Diatom data have been collected in large-scale biological assessments in the United States, such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's National Rivers and Streams Assessment (NRSA). However, the effectiveness of diatoms as indicators may suffer if inconsistent taxon identifications across different analysts obscure the relationships between assemblage composition and environmental variables. To reduce these inconsistencies, we harmonized the 2008-2009 NRSA data from nine analysts by updating names to current synonyms and by statistically identifying taxa with high analyst signal (taxa with more variation in relative abundance explained by the analyst factor, relative to environmental variables). We then screened a subset of samples with QA/QC data and combined taxa with mismatching identifications by the primary and secondary analysts. When these combined "slash groups" did not reduce analyst signal, we elevated taxa to the genus level or omitted taxa in difficult species complexes. We examined the variation explained by analyst in the original and revised datasets. Further, we examined how revising the datasets to reduce analyst signal can reduce inconsistency, thereby uncovering the variation in assemblage composition explained by total phosphorus (TP), an environmental variable of high priority for water managers. To produce a revised dataset with the greatest taxonomic consistency, we ultimately made 124 slash groups, omitted 7 taxa in the small naviculoid (e.g., Sellaphora atomoides) species complex, and elevated Nitzschia, Diploneis, and Tryblionella taxa to the genus level. Relative to the original dataset, the revised dataset had more overlap among samples grouped by analyst in ordination space, less variation explained by the analyst factor, and more than double the variation in assemblage composition explained by TP. Elevating all taxa to the genus level did not eliminate analyst signal completely, and analyst remained the most important predictor for the genera Sellaphora, Mayamaea, and Psammodictyon, indicating that these taxa present the greatest obstacle to consistent identification in this dataset. Although our process did not completely remove analyst signal, this work provides a method to minimize analyst signal and improve detection of diatom association with TP in large datasets involving multiple analysts. Examination of variation in assemblage data explained by analyst and taxonomic harmonization may be necessary steps for improving data quality and the utility of diatoms as indicators of environmental variables.

Life cycle size dynamics in Didymosphenia geminata (Bacillariophyceae).

Didymosphenia geminata has received a great deal of attention in the last 25 years, and considerable effort has gone into determining the origin, ecological impact, and economic consequences of its invasive behavior. While environmental conditions are a controlling influence in distribution, the extreme success of the species may be tied to its basic biology and life history. Little is known, however, about population dynamics, size restoration and reproduction of D. geminata. The objective of this study was to determine the temporal patterns in cell size frequency, size restoration strategy, and synchronization of life cycles between populations in close proximity. We implemented FlowCam technology to measure the length of more than 100,000 D. geminata cells from two sites in South Boulder Creek, Colorado over 1 year. We applied finite mixture modeling to uncover temporal patterns in size distribution. Our results show that collections of D. geminata exhibited a complex, multimodal size distribution, almost always containing four overlapping age cohorts. We failed to observe direct visual evidence of the sexual phase. Multiple abrupt and directional shifts in size distribution, however, were documented providing conclusive evidence of cell size restoration. Lastly, nodules in close proximity were asynchronous with respect to size frequency profiles and size diminution, highlighting the relevance of spatial heterogeneity in in situ diatom size dynamics. This study is the first to document the complexity of diatom cell size distribution in a lotic system, size restoration in D. geminata, and the variability in rates of size reduction at microhabitat spatial scales.

Re-Evaluating the Association Between Hormonal Contraception and Breast Cancer Risk.

This review aims to summarize and assess key studies investigating the relationship between hormonal contraception and breast cancer risk. Approximately two-thirds of breast cancers express the estrogen receptor, and long-term exposure to estrogen is a debated risk factor for breast cancer development. This hypothesis is based on prior studies looking at reproductive risk factors (endogenous estrogen exposure) along with hormone replacement therapy (exogenous hormone exposure). Historically accepted reproductive risk factors include age at menarche, age at first delivery, and parity. Exogenous hormone exposure encompasses both receipt of hormonal contraception and menopausal hormone replacement therapy. This review highlights the reported risks associated with the most common hormonal contraception methods including oral, transdermal, and transvaginal routes. Large observational studies of the past and more recent works are summarized highlighting gaps in knowledge. Several themes emerge: difficulty accounting for well-established risk factors in analyses of epidemiologic studies, challenges determining whether associations between hormonal contraception and breast cancer are due to the exogenous hormones themselves or to increased engagement with the medical system, and discrepancies between statistically significant and clinically significant risk, odds, and hazard ratios. Understanding the strengths and limitations of these studies will help providers in and outside of oncology support women making decisions regarding both cancer risk-reduction and family planning.

Diagnostic value of full-mouth radiography in horses.

In this observational study, oral examinations and full-mouth dental radiographs were performed on 248 horses presented for routine oral health care. The findings were assessed to determine how often disease was diagnosed by radiographs without having related findings on oral examination. In 50 horses (20%), there were radiographic signs of disease that would not have been predicted based upon the oral examination. 113 horses (46%) had oral examination findings that would have prompted dental radiography, according to the criteria of the study. Of these 113 horses, 24 (21%) had radiographic signs of disease that would have been missed if only targeted radiographs had been taken, rather than a full-mouth survey.

Comparison of plasma etonogestrel concentrations sampled from the contralateral-to-implant and ipsilateral-to-implant arms of contraceptive implant users.

OBJECTIVE: To compare plasma etonogestrel concentrations sampled from the contralateral- versus ipsilateral-to-implant arm. STUDY DESIGN: Sub-analysis of a cross-sectional study in Botswana in 33 participants who provided contralateral and ipsilateral blood samples. RESULTS: Plasma etonogestrel concentrations in contralateral and ipsilateral specimens were highly correlated (correlation coefficient = 0.99; p < 0.0001). Bland-Altman analysis of agreement showed that etonogestrel levels were on average 5.9 pg/mL higher (2.1%) in ipsilateral compared to contralateral specimens (95% confidence interval: -4.1, 15.9 pg/mL). CONCLUSIONS: We found no meaningful differences in plasma etonogestrel concentrations between samples taken from the contralateral- versus ipsilateral-to-implant arm. IMPLICATIONS: Our data suggest that etonogestrel plasma concentrations are unlikely to be meaningfully different between samples drawn from the ipsilateral- versus the contralateral-to-implant arms in etonogestrel contraceptive implant users.

Etonogestrel concentrations among contraceptive implant users in Botswana using and not using dolutegravir-based antiretroviral therapy.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate whether etonogestrel concentrations are reduced to a level that could potentially reduce contraceptive efficacy when the etonogestrel contraceptive implant is used concomitantly with dolutegravir-based antiretroviral therapy (ART). STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a non-randomized, open-label, cross-sectional pharmacokinetic study among women using single-rod etonogestrel contraceptive implants in Botswana. We compared plasma etonogestrel concentrations, sampled at a single time-point between 3 and 12 months from implant insertion, among implant users living with HIV and receiving dolutegravir-based ART with HIV-negative implant users. We also assessed concentrations among implant users living with HIV and receiving efavirenz-based ART. We compared geometric mean etonogestrel concentrations analyzing data from 142 participants: 97 HIV-negative, 30 using dolutegravir, and 15 using efavirenz. RESULTS: The groups were similar. Duration of implant use was between 3 and 12 months (median = 5). Geometric mean etonogestrel plasma concentrations and 90% confidence intervals of the mean were 227.5(212.4-243.8), 289.6(251.8-333.0) and 76.4(63.9-91.4) pg/mL among the HIV-negative, dolutegravir- and efavirenz-based ART groups, respectively. All women in the HIV-negative and dolutegravir-based ART groups had etonogestrel concentrations above 90 pg/mL; 9/15 women (60%) using efavirenz-based ART had concentrations below 90 pg/mL. On average, etonogestrel levels were lower among individuals who had implants inserted for longer durations. CONCLUSIONS: Implant users receiving dolutegravir-based ART had a higher mean etonogestrel concentration compared to HIV-negative women, and none had etonogestrel concentrations below the posited threshold for ovulation suppression. In contrast, women in the efavirenz-group had much lower etonogestrel concentrations. Overall, these data provide evidence that the etonogestrel implant may be effectively combined with dolutegravir-based ART regimens. IMPLICATIONS: The etonogestrel implant remains a highly effective contraceptive option for women living with HIV who use dolutegravir-based ART.

Effects of information on the social acceptability of alternatives to clearfelling in Australian wet eucalypt forests.

The effects of viewing different types of information were investigated in people judging the social acceptability of alternative forest harvest systems. Approximately 500 Tasmanians were shown still-simulated images of four harvest systems (a clearfell system, two aggregated retention systems, and a selective system) and were asked to judge their acceptability. Individual interviews were conducted with 12 of the participants. It was anticipated that people holding different beliefs about the consequences of harvesting would have different responses to information. Cluster analysis was used to group participants according to these beliefs. Responses to still images were compared with responses to two other types of information: information about consequences of the harvest systems in the form of indicator symbols, and information about regeneration over time, presented as visual animations. The effects of information differed across both harvest system and belief cluster groups of participants. The largest effects of information occurred in people who held a mix of beliefs about consequences. Within this group, participants who viewed the indicators rated a 30% aggregated retention system higher and selective harvesting lower, than those who did not view the indicators. Viewing animated sequences led to slightly higher ratings of the more intensive harvest systems and significantly lower ratings of the selective harvest system than those based on the still images. The interview data provided examples of interviewees viewing information critically against their own values and beliefs. Only some interviewees appeared to use it in judging social acceptability.

Assessment of four calculation methods proposed by the EC for waste hazardous property HP 14 'Ecotoxic'.

Legislation published in December 2014 revised both the List of Waste (LoW) and amended Appendix III of the revised Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC; the latter redefined hazardous properties HP 1 to HP 13 and HP 15 but left the assessment of HP 14 unchanged to allow time for the Directorate General of the Environment of the European Commission to complete a study that is examining the impacts of four different calculation methods for the assessment of HP 14. This paper is a contribution to the assessment of the four calculation methods. It also includes the results of a fifth calculation method; referred to as "Method 2 with extended M-factors". Two sets of data were utilised in the assessment; the first (Data Set #1) comprised analytical data for 32 different waste streams (16 hazardous (H), 9 non-hazardous (NH) and 7 mirror entries, as classified by the LoW) while the second data set (Data Set #2), supplied by the eco industries, comprised analytical data for 88 waste streams, all classified as hazardous (H) by the LoW. Two approaches were used to assess the five calculation methods. The first approach assessed the relative ranking of the five calculation methods by the frequency of their classification of waste streams as H. The relative ranking of the five methods (from most severe to less severe) is: Method 3>Method 1>Method 2 with extended M-factors>Method 2>Method 4. This reflects the arithmetic ranking of the concentration limits of each method when assuming M=10, and is independent of the waste streams, or the H/NH/Mirror status of the waste streams. A second approach is the absolute matching or concordance with the LoW. The LoW is taken as a reference method and the H wastes are all supposed to be HP 14. This point is discussed in the paper. The concordance for one calculation method is established by the number of wastes with identical classification by the considered calculation method and the LoW (i.e. H to H, NH to NH). The discordance is established as well, that is when the waste is classified "H" in the LoW and "NH" by calculation (i.e. an under-estimation of the hazard). For Data Set #1, Method 2 with extended M-factors matches best with the LoW (80% concordant H and non-H by LoW, and 13% discordant for H waste by LoW). This method more correctly classifies wastes containing substances with high ecotoxicity. Methods 1 and 3 have nearly as good matches (76% and 72% concordant H and non-H by LoW, and 13% and 6% respectively discordant for H waste by LoW). Method 2 with extended M-factors, but limited to the M-factors published in the CLP has insufficient concordance (64% concordant H and non-H by LoW, and 50% discordant for H waste by LoW). As the same method with extended M-factors gives the best performance, the lower performance is due to the limited set of M-factors in the CLP. Method 4 is divergent (60% concordant H and non-H by LoW, and 56% discordant for H waste by LoW). For Data Set #2, Methods 2 and 4 do not correctly classify 24 air pollution control residues from incineration 19 01 07(∗) (3/24 and 2/24 respectively), and should not be used, while Methods 3, 1 and 2 with extended M-factors successfully classify 100% of them as hazardous. From the two sets of data, Method 2 with extended M-factors (corresponding more closely to the CLP methods used for products) matches best with the LoW when the LoW code is safely known, and Method 3 and 1 will deviate from the LoW if the samples contain substances with high ecotoxicity (in particular PAHs). Methods 2 and 4 are not recommended. Formally, this conclusion depends on the waste streams that are used for the comparison of methods and the relevancy of the classification as hazardous for ecotoxicity in the LoW. Since the set is large (120 waste streams) and no selection has been made here in the available data, the conclusion should be robust.

Pairing community health workers with HPV self-sampling for cervical cancer prevention in rural Haiti.

OBJECTIVE: To assess a program in which community health workers (CHWs) provided women with self-sampling devices to detect high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV). METHODS: In a cross-sectional study, 13 CHWs visited homes in a rural area in Haiti's Central Plateau to recruit premenopausal women aged 30-50 years between July 2009 and April 2010. Eligible women had not undergone a cervical smear in the previous 3 years. Participants learned about cervical cancer and self-sampling for HPV testing before using a self-sampler in private. They then completed a questionnaire. CHWs later returned to provide results and advice about follow-up care. RESULTS: CHWs enrolled 493 women. Among the 485 women for whom questionnaires were received, 468 (96.5%) were comfortable using the self-sampler and 484 (99.8%) stated they would recommend it to others. Among 426 analyzed samples, 54 (12.7%) were positive for high-risk HPV, of whom 46 (85.2%) received follow-up care and 17 (31.5%) had precursor lesions and were treated. CONCLUSION: Using a CHW-led intervention, women at high risk for developing cervical cancer were identified and navigated to preventive care. Therefore, pairing CHWs with HPV self-sampling is a promising strategy to combat cervical cancer in rural Haiti and similar settings.

Impacts of the 2010 Haitian earthquake in the diaspora: findings from Little Haiti, Miami, FL.

In January 2010, a massive earthquake struck Haiti resulting in unprecedented damage. Little attention, however, has focused on the earthquake's mental health impact in the Haitian diaspora community. As part of an established community-based participatory research initiative in Little Haiti, the predominately Haitian neighborhood in Miami, FL, USA, community health workers conducted surveys with neighborhood residents about earthquake-related losses, coping strategies, and depressive/traumatic symptomology. Findings reveal the earthquake strongly impacted the diaspora community and highlights prominent coping strategies. Following the earthquake, only a small percentage of participants self-reported engaging in any negative health behaviors. Instead, a majority relied on their social networks for support. This study contributes to the discourse on designing culturally-responsive mental health initiatives for the Haitian diaspora and the ability of existing community-academic partnerships to rapidly adapt to community needs.

Burden of Human Papillomavirus among Haitian Immigrants in Miami, Florida: Community-Based Participatory Research in Action.

Background. Haitian immigrant women residing in Little Haiti, a large ethnic enclave in Miami-Dade County, experience the highest cervical cancer incidence rates in South Florida. While this disparity primarily reflects lack of access to screening with cervical cytology, the burden of human papillomavirus (HPV) which causes virtually all cases of cervical cancer worldwide, varies by population and may contribute to excess rate of disease. Our study examined the prevalence of oncogenic and nononcogenic HPV types and risk factors for HPV infection in Little Haiti. Methods. As part of an ongoing community-based participatory research initiative, community health workers recruited study participants between 2007 and 2008, instructed women on self-collecting cervicovaginal specimens, and collected sociodemographic and healthcare access data. Results. Of the 242 women who contributed adequate specimens, the overall prevalence of HPV was 20.7%, with oncogenic HPV infections (13.2% of women) outnumbering nononcogenic infections (7.4%). Age-specific prevalence of oncogenic HPV was highest in women 18-30 years (38.9%) although the prevalence of oncogenic HPV does not appear to be elevated relative to the general U.S. population. The high prevalence of oncogenic types in women over 60 years may indicate a substantial number of persistent infections at high risk of progression to precancer.

Comprehensive analysis of microRNA genomic loci identifies pervasive repetitive-element origins.

MicroRNAs (miRs) are small non-coding RNAs that generally function as negative regulators of target messenger RNAs (mRNAs) at the posttranscriptional level. MiRs bind to the 3'UTR of target mRNAs through complementary base pairing, resulting in target mRNA cleavage or translation repression. To date, over 15,000 distinct miRs have been identified in organisms ranging from viruses to man and interest in miR research continues to intensify. Of note, the most enlightening aspect of miR function-the mRNAs they target-continues to be elusive. Descriptions of the molecular origins of independent miR molecules currently support the hypothesis that miR hairpin generation is based on the adjacent insertion of two related transposable elements (TEs) at one genomic locus. Thus transcription across such TE interfaces establishes many, if not the majority of functional miRs. The implications of these findings are substantial for understanding how TEs confer increased genomic fitness, describing miR transcriptional regulations and making accurate miR target predictions. In this work, we have performed a comprehensive analysis of the genomic events responsible for the formation of all currently annotated miR loci. We find that the connection between miRs and transposable elements is more significant than previously appreciated, and more broadly, supports an important role for repetitive elements in miR origin, expression and regulatory network formation. Further, we demonstrate the utility of these findings in miR target prediction. Our results greatly expand the existing repertoire of defined miR origins, detailing the formation of 2,392 of 15,176 currently recognized miR genomic loci and supporting a mobile genetic element model for the genomic establishment of functional miRs.

Reliability of post-mortem psychiatric diagnosis for neuroscience research.

OBJECTIVE: The validity of post-mortem human brain research relies upon accurate clinical and psychopathological diagnosis. Current literature indicates few instances where standardized diagnostic assessment tools such as the Diagnostic Instrument for Brain Studies have been utilized. The primary aim of the present study was to investigate the degree of concordance between predominant ante-mortem psychiatric diagnoses indicated in medical records, and post-mortem diagnoses derived through structured diagnostic instruments such as the Diagnostic Instrument for Brain Studies and the Item Group Checklist of the Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry. METHODS: Fifty-eight subjects from the New South Wales Tissue Resource Centre, assigned a clinical psychiatric diagnosis after death, were included in the study. The predominant ante-mortem diagnosis of each case was compared to the corresponding post-mortem diagnosis obtained through structured case reviews to which either the Diagnostic Instrument for Brain Studies (from 2001) or the Item Group Checklist of Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry (before 2001) were applied. RESULTS: Comparison of ante-mortem and post-mortem diagnoses produced an overall kappa coefficient of 0.66. Kappa coefficients for the schizophrenia cohort were 0.61, 0.35 for the schizoaffective cohort, 0.95 for the major depressive disorder cohort and 0.70 for the bipolar disorder cohort. CONCLUSIONS: There was moderate-excellent inter-rater reliability for most cohorts in this sample. There was sufficient disagreement, however, particularly for the schizoaffective cohort, to suggest the value of applying a standardized and structured assessment approach to psychiatric diagnosis. A standardized approach would likely enhance both the accuracy of diagnosis and the prospective validity of tissue-based research. The present study also highlights the importance of accurate and detailed medical record keeping at a symptom-based level across all mental health professions. In the absence of clear and adequate symptom-based detail, the reliability of both ante-mortem and post-mortem diagnosis may be compromised.

Linking GIS-based models to value ecosystem services in an Alpine region.

Planning frequently fails to include the valuation of public goods and services. This can have long-term negative economic consequences for a region. This is especially the case in mountainous regions such as the Alps, which depend on tourism and where land-use changes can negatively impact key ecosystem services and hence the economy. In this study, we develop a semi-automatic procedure to value ecosystem goods and services. Several existing process-based models linked to economic valuation methods are integrated into a geographic information system (GIS) platform. The model requires the input of a digital elevation model, a land-cover map, and a spatially explicit temperature dataset. These datasets are available for most regions in Europe. We illustrate the approach by valuing four ecosystem services: avalanche protection, timber production, scenic beauty, and habitat, which are supplied by the "Landschaft Davos", an administrative district in the Swiss Alps. We compare the impacts of a human development scenario and a climate scenario on the value of these ecosystem services. Urban expansion and tourist infrastructure developments have a negative impact on scenic beauty and habitats. These impacts outweigh the benefits of the developments in the long-term. Forest expansion, predictable under a climate change scenario, favours natural avalanche protection and habitats. In general, such non-marketed benefits provided by the case-study region more than compensate for the costs of forest maintenance. Finally, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the approach. Despite its limitations, we show how this approach could well help decision-makers balance the impacts of different planning options on the economic accounting of a region, and guide them in selecting sustainable and economically feasible development strategies.

Can odours acquire fat-like properties?

Odours can acquire taste-like properties via simultaneous pairing in the mouth with tastants like sucrose. The experiment reported here sought to test whether qualities other than taste may also be acquired. Participants received pairings between odour A and low-fat unsweetened milk (LFUN), odour B and low-fat sweetened milk (LFSW), odour C and high-fat unsweetened milk (HFUN) and odour D and high-fat sweetened milk (HFSW). On test, participants reported that odours paired with milks perceived as being fattier (i.e. LFSW, HFUN, HFSW) were judged to smell fattier than they did prior to conditioning. In a further test, participants were asked to sample each of the four odours in a slightly fatty-sweet milk target. Odours previously paired with high-fat milks enhanced perceived fattiness of the target, whilst odours previously paired with sweetened milks enhanced perceived sweetness. These results were not well accounted for by participants' explicit knowledge of the odour-milk pairings and suggest that fat-like qualities may be acquired.