Prospective evaluation of a high multiplexing real-time polymerase chain reaction array for the rapid identification and characterization of bacteria causative of nosocomial pneumonia from clinical specimens: a proof-of-concept study.

The purpose of this study was evaluation of the VAPChip assay based on the "Rapid-Array-PCR-technology" which targets 13 respiratory pathogens and 24 ß-lactam resistance genes directly on respiratory clinical specimens. The first step included analysis of 45 respiratory specimens in order to calibrate and determine the threshold for target genes. The second prospective step involved 85 respiratory samples from patients suspected of nosocomial pneumonia collected in two academic hospitals over an 8-month period. Results of the VAPChip assay were compared to routine methods. The first step showed a large proportion of positive signals for H. influenzae and/or S. pneumoniae. For identification, discrepancies were observed in seven samples. Thresholds were adapted and two probes were re-designed to create a new version of the cartridge. In the second phase, sensitivity and specificity of the VAPchip for bacterial identification were 72.9% and 99.1%, respectively. Seventy (82%) pathogens were correctly identified by both methods. Nine pathogens detected by the VAPChip were culture negative and 26 pathogens identified by culture were VAPChip negative. For resistance mechanisms, 11 probes were positive without identification of pathogens with an antimicrobial-susceptibility testing compatible by culture. However, the patient's recent microbiological history was able to explain most of these positive signals. The VAPChip assay simultaneously detects different pathogens and resistance mechanisms directly from clinical samples. This system seems very promising but the extraction process needs to be automated for routine implementation. This kind of rapid point-of-care automated platform permitting a syndromic approach will be the future challenge in the management of infectious diseases.

Increasing incidence of carbapenemase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in Belgian hospitals.

Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae are increasingly reported worldwide. The aim of the study was to determine the incidence and molecular epidemiology of carbapenemase-producing (CP) Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae (CP-E/K) in Belgium. Eleven hospital-based laboratories collected carbapenem non-susceptible (CNS) isolates of E. coli and K. pneumoniae detected in clinical specimens from January 2013 to December 2014. All CNS strains were tested for carbapenemase production and typed by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) for a 6-month period as part of the European Survey on Carbapenemase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae in Europe (EuSCAPE) structured survey. In addition, an equal number of carbapenem-susceptible isolates collected were preserved as a control group for risk factor analysis. The overall incidence rate of CP-E/K isolates in hospitals increased from 0.124 in 2013 to 0.223 per 1000 admissions in 2014. From November 2013 to April 2014, 30 CP K. pneumoniae [OXA-48 (n = 16), KPC (n = 13), OXA-427 (n = 1)] and five CP E. coli [OXA-48 (n = 3), NDM (n = 1), OXA-427 (n = 1)] isolates were detected in ten hospitals. The 16 OXA-48-producing K. pneumoniae strains were distributed into eight sequence types (STs), while the 13 KPC-producing K. pneumoniae clustered into three STs dominated by ST512 (n = 7) and ST101 (n = 5). Compared to controls, we observed among CP-E/K carriers significantly higher proportion of males, respiratory origins, previous hospitalization, nosocomial setting, and a significantly lower proportion of bloodstream infections. Our study confirms the rapid spread of CP-E/K in Belgian hospitals and the urgent need for a well-structured and coordinated national surveillance plan in order to limit their dissemination.

When polymerase chain reaction does not help: cytomegalovirus pneumonitis associated with very low or undetectable viral load in both blood and bronchoalveolar lavage samples after lung transplantation.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) pneumonitis occurs frequently among solid organ transplant recipients and is classically associated with significant viral replication in both blood and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) samples. We present a case of a 64-year-old lung transplant recipient who presented with CMV pneumonitis that was diagnosed based on the association of viral inclusion in the BAL sample, rapid response to ganciclovir, and absence of other infectious etiology. Surprisingly, we observed very low or undetectable viral load both in blood and BAL samples. Diagnosis of CMV pneumonitis should rely on the association of clinical, pathological, radiological, and microbiological signs, while quantitative nucleic acid amplification testing should be interpreted with caution.

Evaluation of several phenotypic methods for the detection of carbapenemase-producing Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The purpose of this investigation was to compare several phenotypic methods, including combined disk tests (CDT) containing metallo-ß-lactamase (MBL) inhibitors or cloxacillin, and the Carba NP test for the detection of carbapenemase-producing Pseudomonas aeruginosa (CPPA). A new CDT using imipenem (10 µg) ± cloxacillin 4,000 µg and the Carba NP test were evaluated to detect CPPA. In addition, four commercially available combined disks containing a carbapenem and ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) or dipicolinic acid (DPA) as the inhibitor were tested in order to detect MBL-positive P. aeruginosa. All these phenotypic methods were evaluated on 188 imipenem non-susceptible P. aeruginosa (CPPA, n = 75) isolates divided into 26 well-characterized collection strains and 162 non-duplicate clinical isolates referred to the national reference laboratory in 2013. For the total of 188 isolates tested, CDT containing EDTA or DPA displayed high sensitivities (99%) and specificities (95%) for detecting MBL-producing isolates. CDT with cloxacillin showed a sensitivity and specificity of 97%/96% compared to 88%/99% for the Carba NP test in order to detect CPPA. For the 162 clinical isolates, CDT containing EDTA or DPA displayed a high negative predictive value (NPV) (99%) for detecting MBL-producing isolates. CDT with cloxacillin showed an NPV of 98%, compared to 95% for the Carba NP test in order to detect CPPA. In our setting, CDT associating imipenem ± EDTA or ± DPA performed best for the detection of MBL-producing P. aeruginosa. Imipenem/imipenem-cloxacillin test yielded good NPV to exclude the presence of MBL in imipenem non-susceptible isolates.

Prevalence and distribution of beta-lactamase coding genes in third-generation cephalosporin-resistant Enterobacteriaceae from bloodstream infections in Cambodia.

Resistance to third-generation cephalosporins in Gram-negative bacteria is emerging in Asia. We report the prevalence and distribution of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL), AmpC beta-lactamase and carbapenemase-coding genes in cefotaxime-resistant Enterobacteriaceae isolates from bloodstream infections (BSI) in Cambodia. All Enterobacteriaceae isolated from BSI in adult patients at Sihanouk Hospital Centre of HOPE, Phnom Penh, Cambodia (2007-2010) were assessed. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was carried out by disc diffusion and MicroScan according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines. Screening for ESBL, plasmidic AmpC and carbapenemase-coding genes was performed by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) sequencing assays. Identification of the ST131 clone was performed in all CTX-M-positive Escherichia coli, using PCR targeting the papB gene. Out of 183 Enterobacteriaceae, 91 (49.7 %) isolates (84 BSI episodes) were cefotaxime-resistant: E. coli (n = 68), Klebsiella pneumoniae (n = 17) and Enterobacter spp. (n = 6). Most episodes were community-acquired (66/84; 78.3 %). ESBLs were present in 89/91 (97.8 %) cefotaxime-resistant isolates: 86 (96.6 %) were CTX-M, mainly CTX-M-15 (n = 41) and CTX-M-14 (n = 21). CTX-M of group 1 were frequently associated with TEM and/or OXA-1/30 coding genes and with phenotypic combined resistance to ciprofloxacin, sulphamethoxazole-trimethoprim and gentamicin (39/50, 78.0 %). Plasmidic AmpC (CMY-2 and DHA-1 types) were found alone (n = 2) or in combination with ESBL (n = 4). Eighteen E. coli isolates were identified as B2-ST131-O25B: 11 (61.1 %) carried CTX-M-14. No carbapenemase-coding genes were detected. ESBL among Enterobacteriaceae from BSI in Cambodia is common, mainly associated with CTX-M-15 and CTX-M-14. These findings warrant urgent action for the containment of antibiotic resistance in Cambodia.

Validation of carbapenemase and extended-spectrum ß-lactamase multiplex endpoint PCR assays according to ISO 15189.

OBJECTIVES: To validate and accredit a set of three multiplex endpoint PCR assays, targeting the most important carbapenemase and minor extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL) resistance genes, according to the international ISO 15189 particular requirements for the quality and competence of medical laboratories. METHODS: Specific primers targeting ESBLs and carbapenemases were collected from the literature or designed internally. The multiplex PCRs were validated for sensitivity, specificity, intra- and inter-run reproducibility and accuracy by means of external quality control (EQC) using a collection of 137 characterized and referenced isolates. For each multiplex PCR assay, the presence of an extraction control ruled out false-negative results due to PCR inhibition or extraction faults. Amplicons were separated by capillary electrophoresis (QIAxcel system, Qiagen). The protocols and validation files were reviewed in the setting of an external audit conducted by the Belgian organization for accreditation (BELAC). RESULTS: Sensitivity, specificity and reproducibility for each targeted gene were 100%. All isolates from the three EQC panels were correctly identified by each PCR assay (accuracy 100%). The validation files were controlled by BELAC, and the PCR protocols were accepted as accredited according to ISO 15189. CONCLUSIONS: Three home-made multiplex PCRs targeting the major carbapenemases and four minor class A ESBL genes encountered in Gram-negative bacteria were accredited according to the ISO 15189 standards. This validation scheme could provide a useful model for laboratories aiming to accredit their own protocols.

Analytical validation of a novel high multiplexing real-time PCR array for the identification of key pathogens causative of bacterial ventilator-associated pneumonia and their associated resistance genes.

OBJECTIVES: Rapid diagnosis and appropriate empirical antimicrobial therapy before the availability of conventional microbiological results is of pivotal importance for the clinical outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). We evaluated the VAPChip, a novel, closed cartridge molecular tool aiming to identify directly from clinical samples and within a working day the principal bacteria causative of VAP as well as clinically relevant ß-lactam resistance genes. METHODS: The Real-time Array PCR for Infectious Diseases (RAP-ID) is a novel technology that combines multiplex PCR with real-time microarray detection. The VAPChip is a closed cartridge kit adapted to the RAP-ID instrument that targets 13 key respiratory pathogens causative of VAP and 24 relevant antimicrobial resistance genes that mediate resistance to ß-lactam agents, including extended-spectrum cephalosporins and carbapenems. Analytical validation of the VAPChip was carried out blindly on a collection of 292 genotypically characterized bacterial reference and clinical isolates, including 225 isolates selected on the basis of their species identification and antimicrobial resistance profiles and 67 bacterial isolates belonging to the oropharyngeal flora not targeted by the array. RESULTS: The limit of detection of the assay lies between 10 and 100 genome copies/PCR and the dynamic range is five orders of magnitude permitting at least semi-quantitative reporting of the results. Sensitivity, specificity and negative and positive predictive values ranged from 95.8% to 100% for species identification and detection of resistance genes. CONCLUSIONS: VAPChip is a novel diagnostic tool able to identify resistant bacterial isolates by RAP-ID technology. The results of this analytical validation have to be confirmed on clinical specimens.

In vitro susceptibility of multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae clinical isolates to tigecycline.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the in vitro susceptibility of multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (MDRE) isolates to tigecycline. METHODS: Clinical isolates of MDRE tested in this study were obtained from 91 hospitals in Belgium during the period January 2010 to April 2010. MICs of tigecycline were determined by Vitek 2 (VTK) and by the reference broth microdilution (BMD) method, and the results were interpreted based on the 2011 MIC interpretative criteria recommended by EUCAST. RESULTS: A total of 501 non-duplicate MDRE isolates were tested. These comprised 284 isolates of Escherichia coli [255 (89.7%) were extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing isolates], 72 isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae [53 (73.6%) were ESBL-producing isolates], 72 isolates of Enterobacter aerogenes, 33 isolates of Enterobacter cloacae, 19 isolates of Klebsiella oxytoca and 21 miscellaneous others. The MIC(90) values of tigecycline for E. coli and non-E. coli ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae isolates were 0.5 and 2 mg/L by BMD, and 0.5 and 8 mg/L by VTK, respectively. The highest essential and categorical agreement rates between VTK and BMD results using EUCAST breakpoints were observed in E. coli isolates (97.2%), while lower and unacceptable essential and categorical agreement rates were obtained for isolates belonging to species other than E. coli (81.1% and 59.4%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: VTK appears to be a suitable method for routine susceptibility testing of tigecycline only for E. coli isolates, while BMD should be preferred for other Enterobacteriaceae species isolates.

Trends in production of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases among Enterobacteriaceae of clinical interest: results of a nationwide survey in Belgian hospitals.

OBJECTIVES: to assess the frequency and diversity of extended-spectrum ß-lactamases (ESBLs) in Enterobacteriaceae isolates in Belgium. METHODS: during 2006 and 2008, non-duplicate clinical isolates of Enterobacteriaceae resistant to ceftazidime and/or cefotaxime were collected in 100 Belgian hospitals. ESBL production was confirmed by phenotypic and genotypic tests. MICs of 13 antimicrobial agents were determined by Etest. ESBL-encoding genes were identified by PCR sequencing and the bla(CTX-M) environment was characterized by PCR mapping. Selected isolates were genotyped by PFGE, multilocus sequence typing analysis and phylogenetic grouping by PCR. RESULTS: overall, 733 isolates were confirmed as ESBL producers. Carbapenems and temocillin were active against ≥ 95% of all tested isolates. Co-resistance to co-trimoxazole and to ciprofloxacin was found in almost 70% and 80% of the strains, respectively. Overall, Escherichia coli (49%), Enterobacter aerogenes (32%) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (9%) represented the most prevalent species. Isolates harboured predominantly TEM-24 (30.7%), CTX-M-15 (24.2%) and TEM-52 (12.1%). Compared with 2006, the proportion of CTX-M-type enzymes increased significantly in 2008 (54% versus 23%; P < 10(-6)), mostly linked to a rising proportion of CTX-M-15-producing E. coli. TEM-24 decreased (19% in 2008 versus 43% in 2006; P < 10(-6)) during the same period, while the prevalence of TEM-52 remained unchanged (10% in 2008 versus 14% in 2006; not significant). Over 80% of the CTX-M-15-producing E. coli isolates clustered into a single PFGE type and phylogroup B2, corresponding to the sequence type (ST) 131 clone. Intra- and inter-species gene dissemination (CTX-M-15, CTX-M-2 and CTX-M-9) and wide epidemic spread of the CTX-M-15-producing E. coli ST131 clone in several Belgian hospitals were observed. CONCLUSIONS: the rapid emergence of multiresistant CTX-M-15-producing E. coli isolates is of major concern and highlights the need for further surveillance in Belgium.

Evaluation of matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry for identification of nocardia species.

The identification of Nocardia species, usually based on biochemical tests together with phenotypic in vitro susceptibility and resistance patterns, is a difficult and lengthy process owing to the slow growth and limited reactivity of these bacteria. In this study, a panel of 153 clinical and reference strains of Nocardia spp., altogether representing 19 different species, were characterized by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). As reference methods for species identification, full-length 16S rRNA gene sequencing and phenotypical biochemical and enzymatic tests were used. In a first step, a complementary homemade reference database was established by the analysis of 110 Nocardia isolates (pretreated with 30 min of boiling and extraction) in the MALDI BioTyper software according to the manufacturer's recommendations for microflex measurement (Bruker Daltonik GmbH, Leipzig, Germany), generating a dendrogram with species-specific cluster patterns. In a second step, the MALDI BioTyper database and the generated database were challenged with 43 blind-coded clinical isolates of Nocardia spp. Following addition of the homemade database in the BioTyper software, MALDI-TOF MS provided reliable identification to the species level for five species of which more than a single isolate was analyzed. Correct identification was achieved for 38 of the 43 isolates (88%), including 34 strains identified to the species level and 4 strains identified to the genus level according to the manufacturer's log score specifications. These data suggest that MALDI-TOF MS has potential for use as a rapid (<1 h) and reliable method for the identification of Nocardia species without any substantial costs for consumables.

Detection and characterization of class A extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase-producing Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates in Belgian hospitals.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the presence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) among Pseudomonas aeruginosa clinical isolates referred to two Belgian reference laboratories. METHODS: Antibiograms were analysed for P. aeruginosa isolates referred between 2004 and 2008. Isolates resistant to ceftazidime (MIC > 8 mg/L) and with a positive double-disc synergy test between ceftazidime and clavulanate were serotyped and screened for the presence of ESBL-encoding genes. Genes encoding metallo-beta-lactamases (bla(MBL)) were sought by PCR in ESBL-producing isolates with positive imipenem/EDTA synergy tests. PFGE of SpeI-digested genomic DNA was used to compare isolates and selected strains were characterized by multilocus sequence typing. RESULTS: Forty-eight (2.2%) of 2150 P. aeruginosa isolates were confirmed as class A ESBL-producing isolates by molecular testing. bla(BEL) and bla(PER) alleles were detected, respectively, in 39 and 10 P. aeruginosa isolates originating from 16 hospitals (two isolates were simultaneously positive for BEL and PER). Fifteen of the isolates were found to co-produce ESBLs and VIM carbapenemases. These strains were pan-resistant and remained susceptible only to colistin (MICs

Evaluation of the Xpert MRSA assay for rapid detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from nares swabs of geriatric hospitalized patients and failure to detect a specific SCCmec type IV variant.

Rapid and reliable detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) carriers is crucial for control of MRSA nosocomial transmission. We aimed to evaluate the performance of the GeneXpert real-time PCR system using the Xpert MRSA assay on a collection of 40 representative Belgian MRSA strains and for MRSA screening of geriatric inpatients. Double nasal swabs were used: the first swab for the Xpert MRSA assay and the second for culture onto chromogenic selective medium and enrichment broth. All but 1 of the 40 collection strains were recognized as MRSA by the Xpert MRSA assay. Nares swabs were prospectively collected from 246 inpatients including 25 nasal MRSA carriers. Compared with enriched cultures, the sensitivity, the specificity, and the positive and negative predictive values of the Xpert MRSA assay were 69.2%, 97.7%, 78.3%, and 96.3% respectively. The 7 evaluable false-negative results according to the assay were due to its possible lack of sensitivity (n = 3) and to the occurrence of a Belgian MRSA clone carrying a particular staphylococcal chromosomal cassette mec (SCCmec) type IV variant (n = 4) not targeted by the current Xpert MRSA assay. Because of the evolution of SCCmec in MRSA, new primers should be designed and further studies are warranted to ensure continuous monitoring of this assay.

Molecular characterization of AmpC-producing Escherichia coli clinical isolates recovered at two Belgian hospitals.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the genetic determinants associated with an AmpC phenotype in clinical Escherichia coli isolates. METHODS: E. coli strains recovered at two Belgian hospitals between 2004 and 2006 were selected on the basis of an AmpC-producing phenotype. Plasmid-mediated cephalosporinases coding genes and the sequence of chromosomal ampC genes were identified by PCR/sequencing. The isolates were submitted to phylotyping and genotyping analysis using rep-PCR (Diversilab) and PFGE. A novel chromosomal ampC gene was cloned. RESULTS: Eighty-three out of 6850 E. coli isolates were selected. Seventy-two isolates were found to overexpress their chromosomal cephalosporinases while 11 contained plasmid-mediated cephalosporinases. Among chromosomal AmpC overproducers, 12 were extended-spectrum AmpC (ESAC) expressing isolates which all displayed reduced susceptibility to cefepime. Cloning of a new ESAC allele suggested that L293P mutation was responsible of the extension of the hydrolysis spectrum to cefepime. AmpC overproducers, including ESAC producers, predominantly belonged to phylogenetic group A and B1, while plasmid-mediated AmpC-producing isolates preferentially belong to phylogroup B2 and D. According to rep-PCR, the majority of the E. coli isolates belonging to phylogroup A were clonally related which was further confirmed by PFGE for the 11 ESAC expressing isolates. CONCLUSIONS: Chromosomal AmpC overproduction was the most common resistance mechanism, and the occurrence of ESAC was found to be as frequent as plasmid-mediated cephalosporinases. The detection of a new ESAC allele, of an ESAC producing strain belonging to phylogroup D and the existence of a clonal relationship between ESAC producing strains underline the need for study of the clinical relevance of this mechanism of resistance.

Nosocomial outbreak of extended-spectrum ß-lactamase-producing Enterobacter cloacae among cardiothoracic surgical patients: causes and consequences.

BACKGROUND: Enterobacteriaceae are recognized as leading pathogens of healthcare-associated infections. AIM: To report the investigation of a nosocomial outbreak of extended-spectrum ß-lactamase-producing Enterobacter cloacae affecting cardiothoracic surgery patients in a Belgian academic hospital. METHODS: Cases were defined based on epidemiological and microbiological investigations, including molecular typing using repetitive element-based polymerase chain reaction and multi-locus sequence typing. Case-control studies followed by field evaluations allowed the identification of a possible reservoir, and the retrospective assessment of human and financial consequences. FINDINGS: Over a three-month period, 42 patients were infected or colonized by CTX-M-15-producing E. cloacae strains that belonged to the same clonal lineage. Acquisition mainly occurred in the intensive care unit (N = 23) and in the cardiothoracic surgery ward (N = 16). All but one patient had, prior to acquisition, undergone a cardiothoracic surgical procedure, monitored by the same transoesophageal echocardiography (TOE) probe in the operating room. Despite negative microbiological culture results, the exclusion of the suspected probe resulted in rapid termination of the outbreak. Overall, the outbreak was associated with a high mortality rate among infected patients (40%) as well as significant costs (€266,550). CONCLUSION: The outbreak was indirectly shown to be associated with the contamination of a manually disinfected TOE probe used per-operatively during cardiothoracic surgery procedures, because withdrawal of the putative device led to rapid termination of the outbreak.

Validation of an automatic comet assay analysis system integrating the curve fitting of combined comet intensity profiles.

In recent years, the single-cell gel electrophoresis (comet) assay has become a reference technique for the assessment of DNA fragmentation both in vitro and in vivo at the cellular level. In order to improve the throughput of genotoxicity screening, development of fully automated systems is clearly a must. This would allow us to increase processing time and to avoid subjectivity brought about by frequent manual settings required for the 'classical' analysis systems. To validate a fully automatic system developed in our laboratory, different experiments were conducted in vitro on murine P388D1 cells with increasing doses of ethyl methanesulfonate (up to 5 mM), thus covering a large range of DNA damage (up to 80% of DNA in the tail). The present study (1) validates our 'in house' fully automatic system versus a widely used semi-automatic commercial system for the image-analysis step, and versus the human eye for the image acquisition step, (2) shows that computing tail DNA a posteriori on the basis of a curve fitting concept that combines intensity profiles [G. Dehon, P. Bogaerts, P. Duez, L. Catoire, J. Dubois, Curve fitting of combined comet intensity profiles: a new global concept to quantify DNA damage by the comet assay, Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 73 (2004) 235-243] gives results not significantly different from the 'classical' approach but is much more accurate and easy to undertake and (3) demonstrates that, with these increased performances, the number of comets to be scored can be reduced to a minimum of 20 comets per slide without sacrificing statistical reliability.

Infection due to travel-related carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae, a largely underestimated phenomenon in Belgium.

BACKGROUND: Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (CPE) are emerging worldwide, representing a major threat for public health. Early CPE detection is crucial in order to prevent infections and the development of reservoirs/outbreaks in hospitals. In 2008, most of the CPE strains reported in Belgium were imported from patients repatriated from abroad. Actually, this is no longer the case. OBJECTIVES AND METHODS: A surveillance was set up in Belgian hospitals (2012) in order to explore the epidemiology and determinants of CPE, including the link with international travel/hospitalization. The present article describes travel-related CPE reported in Belgium. Different other potential sources for importation of CPE are discussed. RESULTS: Only 12% of all CPE cases reported in Belgium (2012-2013) were travel related (with/without hospitalization). This is undoubtedly an underestimation (missing travel data: 36%), considering the increasing tourism, the immigration from endemic countries, the growing number of foreign patients using scheduled medical care in Belgium, and the medical repatriations from foreign hospitals. The free movement of persons and services (European Union) contributes to an increase in foreign healthcare workers (HCW) in Belgian hospitals. Residents from nursing homes located at the country borders can be another potential source of dissemination of CPE between countries. Moreover, the high population density in Belgium can increase the risk for CPE-dissemination. Urban areas in Belgium may cumulate these potential risk factors for import/dissemination of CPE. CONCLUSIONS: Ideally, travel history data should be obtained from hospital hygiene teams, not from the microbiological laboratory. Patients who received medical care abroad (whatever the country) should be screened for CPE at admission.

Multidrug resistance modifies polyamines uptake in P388 murine lymphoma cells: experimental and modeling approach.

Polyamines (putrescine, spermidine and spermine) are ubiquitous compounds, essential for cell growth. This paper compares the polyamine transport between sensitive P388 murine lymphoma cells and two multidrug resistant P388 sublines with the assistance of an experimental model. This new model allows the characterisation of the whole polyamines uptake and efflux. Three parameters are identified by the model: two rate constants (K+ for the uptake and K- for the efflux) which are considered as physical constants specific to the transport of one polyamine in one cell type, and Ci(o) which represents the initial intracellular concentration. This model well describes our experimental results of polyamine transport across the P388 cell plasma membrane. Multidrug resistant P388 cells exhibit spermine uptake significantly higher than that of sensitive cells when on the opposite, putrescine enters more rapidly into the sensitive P388 cells. In conclusion, comparison of polyamine transport between sensitive and multidrug resistant P388 phenotypes shows large and significant differences.