Oxidative phosphorylation by membrane vesicles from Bacillus alcalophilus.

ADP and Pi-loaded membrane vesicles from t-malate-grown Bacillus alcalophilus synthesized ATP upon energization with ascorbate/N,N,N',N'-tetra-methyl-P-phenylenediamine. ATP synthesis occurred over a range of external pH from 6.0 to 11.0, under conditions in which the total protonmotive force delta-mu-H+ was as low as -30 mV. The phosphate potentials (delta Gp) were calculated to be 11 and 12 kcal/mol at pH 10.5 and 9.0, respectively, whereas the delta-mu-H+ values in vesicles at these two pH values were quite different (-40 +/- 20 mV at pH 10.5 and -125 +/- 20 mV at pH 9.0). ATP synthesis was inhibited by KCN, gramicidin, and by N,N1-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide. Inward translocation of protons, concomitant with ATP synthesis, was demonstrated using direct pH monitoring and fluorescence methods. No dependence upon the presence of Na+ or K+ was found. Thus, ATP synthesis in B. alcalophilus appears to involve a proton-translocating ATPase which functions at low delta-mu-H+.

The dependent personality: developmental, social, and clinical perspectives.

Developmental, social, and clinical studies of dependency have produced remarkably consistent results. A review and integration of these findings allow strong conclusions to be drawn regarding the etiology and dynamics of dependency. The etiology of dependency appears to lie in overprotective, authoritarian parenting. In social settings, dependency is associated with suggestibility, conformity, compliance, interpersonal yielding, affiliative behavior, and sensitivity to interpersonal cues. Dependency predicts the onset of certain psychological disorders and follows the onset of others. It seems that the fundamental motivation of the dependent person, from which the behaviors that are exhibited in different situations are derived, is a strong desire to obtain and maintain nurturant, supportive relationships. Implications of these findings for different theoretical models of dependency are discussed.

A meta-analysis of antidepressant outcome under "blinder" conditions.

A meta-analysis of 22 studies of antidepressant outcome assessed the level of medication effects under conditions thought to be less subject to clinician bias than those in the typical double-blind drug trial. Studies were included only if, in addition to a newer antidepressant group, they also contained both standard antidepressant and placebo control groups. Effect sizes were quite modest and approximately one half to one quarter the size of those previously reported under more transparent conditions. Effect sizes that were based on clinician outcome ratings were significantly larger than those that were based on patient ratings. Patient ratings revealed no advantage for antidepressants beyond the placebo effect. Effect sizes were unrelated to sample sex ratios, patient age, inpatient or outpatient status, dosage level, and treatment duration. Findings highlight the fragility of the antidepressant effect.

Implicit and self-attributed dependency strivings: differential relationships to laboratory and field measures of help seeking.

D. C. McClelland, R. Koestner, and J. Weinberger (1989) argued that self-report tests assess self-attributed needs (i.e., motives that are openly acknowledged by the actor), whereas projective tests assess implicit needs (i.e., motives that affect behavior without conscious awareness on the actor's part). The present studies examined the effects of implicit and self-attributed dependency strivings on laboratory and field measures of help seeking. In Study 1, college students were prescreened with widely used objective and projective dependency tests, then underwent an information manipulation designed to influence their attention to dependency-related issues. As expected, dependency status and information condition interacted to predict help-seeking behavior. Study 2 used experience-sampling procedures to demonstrate that implicit and self-attributed dependency needs differentially predict direct and indirect help seeking in vivo.

Stimulus recognition and the mere exposure effect.

A meta-analysis of research on Zajonc's (1968) mere exposure effect indicated that stimuli perceived without awareness produce substantially larger exposure effects than do stimuli that are consciously perceived (Bornstein, 1989a). However, this finding has not been tested directly in the laboratory. Two experiments were conducted comparing the magnitude of the exposure effect produced by 5-ms (i.e., subliminal) stimuli and stimuli presented for longer durations (i.e., 500 ms). In both experiments, 5-ms stimuli produced significantly larger mere exposure effects than did 500-ms stimuli. These results were obtained for polygon (Experiment 1), Welsh figure (Experiment 2), and photograph stimuli (Experiments 1 and 2). Implications of these findings for theoretical models of the mere exposure effect are discussed.

Meta-analytic methods, the Rorschach, and the MMPI.

In response to concerns described by H. N. Garb, J. M. Wood, M. T. Nezworski, W. M. Grove, and W. J. Stejskal (2001), the authors present the weighted and unweighted means and medians of the effect sizes obtained by J. B. Hiller, R. Rosenthal, R. F. Bornstein, D. T. R. Berry, and S. Brunell-Neuleib (1999). These indices of central tendency are presented separately for Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and Rorschach effect sizes, both for all the studies in the meta-analysis and for a 10% trimmed sample designed to obtain more robust estimates of central tendency. The variability of these 4 indices is noticeably greater for the MMPI than for the Rorschach. Meta-analysts must compute, compare, and evaluate a variety of indices of central tendency, and they must examine the effects of moderator variables. The authors also comment briefly on the use of phi versus kappa, combining correlated effect sizes and possible hindsight biases.

Adaptive and maladaptive aspects of dependency: an integrative review.

Although dependence in adults has typically been viewed as a flow or deficit in functioning, a review of the literature reveals that high levels of dependency are associated with both positive and negative qualities on the part of the dependent person. Studies confirming this association are discussed, along with the theoretical and practical implications of their findings.

Defense mechanism correlates of orality.

Although there has been a great deal of research assessing behavioral correlates of oral dependency, the defensive style of the oral dependent person remains unexplored. This paper describes two studies investigating the orality--defense mechanism relationship. In the first study, 154 undergraduate subjects (74 males and 80 females) completed the Defense Mechanisms Inventory (DMI; Gleser and Ihilevich, 1969), and were administered the Group Rorschach test which was scored for oral dependent content in the standard manner (Masling, 1986). In the second study, 64 undergraduate subjects (30 males and 34 females) completed the DMI and the Lazare-Klerman Trait Scale (Lazare, Klerman & Armor, 1966, 1970). Results of both studies indicated that orality is positively related to the use of turning-against-self (TAS) defenses, and negatively related to the use of turning-against-object (TAO) defenses in male subjects. In both studies, orality scores were negatively related to scores on a DMI-derived index of outward-directed aggression (AGG) in males. In Study 2, neither obsessiveness nor hysteria scores were related to TAS, TAO or AGG scores in subjects of either sex. Findings are discussed in the context of previous research on oral dependence.

Clinical utility of the Rorschach Inkblot Method: reframing the debate.

Recent published exchanges have focused on the clinical utility and diagnostic efficiency of the Rorschach Inkblot Method (RIM), but key issues remain unresolved. In this article, 5 principles for evaluating RIM research are offered to help reframe the ongoing debate in this area. These are (a) recognize what the test can and cannot do; (b) choose appropriate outcome criteria to assess RIM effectiveness; (c) use multimethod, multicriterion matrices to place results in an appropriate context; (d) consider limitations in the outcome criteria themselves; and (e) use experimental--not just correlational--data to contrast the results obtained with projective and self-report tests. Coupled with Weiner's (2000a) guidelines for RIM interpretation, the principles outlined here can improve RIM research and practice, and help resolve some longstanding controversies in this area.

Active dependency.

Although dependency has long been associated with passivity, weakness, and submissiveness, a review of the empirical literature reveals that, in certain situations and settings, dependent persons actually exhibit a variety of active, assertive behaviors. In this article, I: a) trace the historical roots of the dependency-passivity link; b) review empirical studies from developmental, social, and clinical psychology which indicate that, in certain circumstances, dependency is associated with active, assertive behavior on the part of the dependent person; c) offer an alternative conceptual model of dependency that accounts for the entire range of behaviors-both passive and active-that are exhibited by the dependent person; and d) discuss the diagnostic and therapeutic implications of this alternative conceptual model of dependency.

Dependency in the personality disorders: intensity, insight, expression, and defense.

Although dependency-related dynamics play a role in many forms of personality pathology, a review of the literature in this area reveals that individuals with different personality disorders differ with respect to the intensity of underlying dependency needs, their degree of insight regarding these needs, the ways in which dependency needs are expressed in important interpersonal relationships, and characteristic defenses used to modulate underlying dependency needs. Clinical, theoretical, and empirical implications of these findings are discussed, and suggestions for future research on the dependency-personality disorders relationship are offered.

Implicit and self-attributed dependency needs in dependent and histrionic personality disorders.

Theorists speculate that dependent personality disorder (DPD) and histrionic personality disorder (HPD) are both associated with high levels of implicit (i.e., unconscious) dependency needs but speculate that only DPD is associated with high levels of self-attributed (i.e., conscious) dependency needs. To test this hypothesis, 444 undergraduates (236 women and 208 men) completed the Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire-Revised (PDQ-R), along with widely used measures of implicit dependency needs (the Rorschach Oral Dependency Scale; ROD), and self-attributed dependency needs (the Interpersonal Dependency Inventory; IDI). Correlational analyses and comparisons of IDI and ROD scores in participants scoring above and below the PDQ-R DPD and HPD thresholds supported theorists' speculations regarding implicit and self-attributed dependency needs in DPD and HPD. Implications of these results are discussed, and suggestions for future studies are offered.

Critical importance of stimulus unawareness for the production of subliminal psychodynamic activation effects: a meta-analytic review.

Meta-analysis that assessed the magnitude of behavior change produced by subliminal vs. supraliminal drive-related stimuli was performed on all subliminal psychodynamic activation (SPA) studies that employed both types of stimuli (N of studies = 11, N of subliminal-supraliminal comparisons = 43). The analysis revealed that subliminal presentation of drive-related stimuli produced significantly stronger effects on behavior than supraliminal presentation of the same stimuli. Stimulus content, type of outcome measure, and subject characteristics all influenced the magnitude of subliminal-supraliminal response differences. These results support Silverman's (1983) hypothesis that drive-related stimuli must be presented subliminally in order to produce SPA effects. Furthermore, given the pattern of subliminal-supraliminal effect sizes obtained, a partial cue hypothesis of SPA effects is not tenable. Implications of these findings for research that examines the restricting effects of awareness on responding to drive- and affect-related stimuli are discussed.

Dependency and patienthood.

A review of laboratory and clinical studies of dependency reveals that a dependent personality orientation is associated with several traits that are likely to influence psychotherapy process and outcome (i.e., compliance with rules and authorities, sensitivity to interpersonal cues, and desire for help and support from others). Because empirical studies of dependency have produced highly consistent findings, strong conclusions may be drawn from the converging results of these investigations. After a review of the clinical and experimental literature on dependency, the implications of patient dependency for several areas of patient-related behaviors (i.e., willingness to seek treatment, behavior during psychotherapy, and the dynamics of treatment termination) are discussed.

Depathologizing dependency.

For nearly a century psychologists, psychiatrists, and other mental health professionals have emphasized the maladaptive, problematic aspects of dependent personality traits. In this article, I review theoretical frameworks that have played a key role in pathologizing dependency, and then describe empirical findings which indicate that dependency is not simply a flaw or deficit in functioning but is also associated with a variety of healthy, adaptive traits, and behaviors. The theoretical, empirical, and clinical implications of depathologizing dependency are discussed.

Implicit perception, implicit memory, and the recovery of unconscious material in psychotherapy.

A review of the empirical literature on implicit perception and implicit memory reveals that Freud's hypotheses regarding free association, transference, and the recovery of unconscious material in therapy were correct in some areas and incorrect in others. Empirical evidence confirms that--as Freud hypothesized--when implicit (i.e., unconscious) perceptions and memories are made explicit (i.e., conscious), individuals are able to make more logical, realistic judgments and inferences regarding those perceptions and memories. However, empirical evidence does not support Freud's contention that free association is a particularly powerful tool for accessing unconscious material. The implications of these findings for psychoanalytic theory and therapy are discussed, and alternative approaches to accessing unconscious material in psychotherapy are described.

Critical importance of stimulus unawareness for the production of subliminal psychodynamic activation effects. An attributional model.

This paper describes a new theoretical model of subliminal psychodynamic activation (SPA) effects. The model conceptualizes subliminal-supraliminal differences in SPA effects as being due to differences in subjects' attributions for the changes in anxiety level that are produced by subliminal versus supraliminal SPA stimuli. Changes in anxiety level produced by supraliminal SPA stimuli can be attributed by subjects to the experimental procedures, diminishing the impact of these messages on subjects' responses. In contrast, subjects cannot attribute changes in anxiety level produced by subliminal SPA stimuli to the experimental procedures. Therefore, no "discounting" (i.e., situational) attributions for subliminally induced changes in anxiety levels are available to subjects, and subliminal SPA messages produce significantly stronger effects on responding than do supraliminal SPA messages. The attributional model of SPA effects is discussed in the context of other long-term research programs investigating subliminal phenomena. The implications of this model for clinical treatment and empirical research utilizing the SPA paradigm are discussed.

Orality and latency of volunteering to serve as experimental subjects: a replication.

Comparison of Rorschach orality scores for undergraduate subjects who signed up to participate in psychology experiments during the first (n = 217) and second (n = 87) halves of the semester revealed that early participators report a significantly (p = .03) greater number of oral Rorschach responses (X = 3.765) than late participators (X = 3.218). This result confirms an earlier serendipitous finding (Masling, O'Neill, & Jayne, 1981) that volunteering to participate in required experiments is not a chance event and can, in fact, be predicted using methods derived from psychoanalytic theory. Our finding supports the utility of psychoanalytic principles in predicting important aspects of nonlaboratory behavior.

Affective discrimination and the implicit learning process.

A modified version of the mere exposure effect paradigm was utilized in an implicit artificial grammar learning task in an attempt to develop a procedure that would be more sensitive in assesing nonconscious learning processes than the methods currently utilized within the field of implicit learning. Subjects were presented with stimuli generated from a finite-state artificial grammar and then had to either (a) decide if novel items conformed to the rule structure of the grammar or (b) rate the degree to which they liked novel items. Because the latter task was the more indirect of the two procedures, subjects' ability to discriminate between well-formed and ill-formed items on this liking task was taken as a more sensitive piece of evidence of implicit learning, compared to performance on the rule conformity task. A subsequent test of subjects' explicit knowledge of the rules of the grammar showed that subjects do have some conscious knowledge of the artificial grammar, but subjects initially making liking decisions exhibited significantly less conscious rule knowledge than subjects initially making rule-conformity judgments. The findings are discussed in relation to the synergistic relationships among implicit perception, implicit memory, and implicit learning processes.