Thermo-responsive properties of metallo-supramolecular block copolymer micellar hydrogels.

Metallo-supramolecular micellar hydrogels exhibiting thermo-mechanical responsiveness are prepared through the hierarchical assembly of a heterotelechelic associating copolymer. The copolymer consists of a linear thermo-sensitive water-soluble sequence terminated by a short hydrophobic sticker at one end, the other being functionalized by a chelating ligand. As the first level of assembly, the associating copolymer is dissolved in aqueous solution to yield micellar nanostructures, bearing coordinative motifs at the end of the coronal chains. The second level of assembly is achieved when transition metal ions are added to the micellar solutions, resulting in almost instantaneous gelation. The thermo-mechanical response of those materials is investigated in detail by rotational rheometry, showing abrupt changes within the temperature boundaries corresponding to the phase transition of the polymer block located in the micellar corona.

Micellar cathodes from self-assembled nitroxide-containing block copolymers in battery electrolytes.

This contribution describes the synthesis of block copolymers containing electrochemically active blocks, their micellization, and finally their use as micellar cathodes in a lithium battery. The self-assembly of the synthesized poly(styrene)-block-poly(2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyloxy-4-yl methacrylate) (PS-b-PTMA) diblock copolymers is realized in a typical battery electrolyte made of 1 m lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate dissolved in a mixture of ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate/dimethyl carbonate(1:1:1, in volume). Dynamic light scattering and atomic force micro-scopy indicate the formation of well-defined spherical micelles with a PS core and a PTMA corona. The electrochemical properties of those micelles are further investigated. Cyclic voltammograms show a reversible redox reaction at 3.6 V (vs Li(+) /Li). The charge/discharge profiles indicate a flat and reversible plateau around 3.6 V (vs Li(+) /Li). Finally, the cycling performances of the micellar cathodes are demonstrated. Such self-assembled block copolymers open new opportunities for nanostructured organic radical batteries.

Cell-penetrating anti-GFAP VHH and corresponding fluorescent fusion protein VHH-GFP spontaneously cross the blood-brain barrier and specifically recognize astrocytes: application to brain imaging.

Antibodies normally do not cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and cannot bind an intracellular cerebral antigen. We demonstrate here for the first time that a new class of antibodies can cross the BBB without treatment. Camelids produce native homodimeric heavy-chain antibodies, the paratope being composed of a single-variable domain called VHH. Here, we used recombinant VHH directed against human glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a specific marker of astrocytes. Only basic VHHs (e.g., pI=9.4) were able to cross the BBB in vitro (7.8 vs. 0% for VHH with pI=7.7). By intracarotid and intravenous injections into live mice, we showed that these basic VHHs are able to cross the BBB in vivo, diffuse into the brain tissue, penetrate into astrocytes, and specifically label GFAP. To analyze their ability to be used as a specific transporter, we then expressed a recombinant fusion protein VHH-green fluorescent protein (GFP). These "fluobodies" specifically labeled GFAP on murine brain sections, and a basic variant (pI=9.3) of the fusion protein VHH-GFP was able to cross the BBB and to label astrocytes in vivo. The potential of VHHs as diagnostic or therapeutic agents in the central nervous system now deserves attention.

Modulation of the mouse prefrontal cortex activation by neuronal nicotinic receptors during novelty exploration but not by exploration of a familiar environment.

Organization of locomotor behavior is altered in mice knockout for the ß2 subunit of the nicotinic receptor-ß2-/- mice-during novelty exploration. We investigated the neuronal basis of this alteration by measuring activation of the immediate early gene c-fos in the brains of wild-type (WT) and ß2-/- mice after exploration of a novel or a familiar environment. Results show 1) no constitutive difference between WT and ß2-/- mice in c-fos gene expression in any brain region, 2) novelty exploration triggered activation of the hippocampus and the reward circuit while exploration of a familiar environment produced increased activation in the amygdala, and 3) in ß2-/- mice, exploration of novelty, but not familiarity, induced an increase in activation in the prelimbic prefrontal cortex (PFC) compared with WT mice. c-Fos immunoreactivity after different stages of learning in a maze increased similarly in the prelimbic area of both WT and ß2-/- mice, while their performance differed. In WT mice, exploration of a novel environment triggered an increase in c-Fos expression in the reward circuit and the hippocampus, while in ß2-/- mice, the amygdala and the motor cortex were additionally activated. We also highlight the role of nicotinic receptors during activation of the PFC, specifically during free exploration of a novel environment.

Alterations of cortical pyramidal neurons in mice lacking high-affinity nicotinic receptors.

The neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are allosteric membrane proteins involved in multiple cognitive processes, including attention, learning, and memory. The most abundant form of heterooligomeric nAChRs in the brain contains the beta2- and alpha4- subunits and binds nicotinic agonists with high affinity. In the present study, we investigated in the mouse the consequences of the deletion of one of the nAChR components: the beta2-subunit (beta2(-/-)) on the microanatomy of cortical pyramidal cells. Using an intracellular injection method, complete basal dendritic arbors of 650 layer III pyramidal neurons were sampled from seven cortical fields, including primary sensory, motor, and associational areas, in both beta2(-/-) and WT animals. We observed that the pyramidal cell phenotype shows significant quantitative differences among different cortical areas in mutant and WT mice. In WT mice, the density of dendritic spines was rather similar in all cortical fields, except in the prelimbic/infralimbic cortex, where it was significantly higher. In the absence of the beta2-subunit, the most significant reduction in the density of spines took place in this high-order associational field. Our data suggest that the beta2-subunit is involved in the dendritic morphogenesis of pyramidal neurons and, in particular, in the circuits that contribute to the high-order functional connectivity of the cerebral cortex.

Functional maturation of human iPSC-derived pyramidal neurons in vivo is dependent on proximity with the host tissue.

Human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) have been used extensively in vitro to model early events in neurodevelopment. Because of a number of shortcomings, previous work has established a potential to use these cells in vivo after transplantation into the mouse brain. Here, we describe a systematic approach for the analysis of transplanted hiPSC-derived neurons and glial cells over time in the mouse brain. Using functional two-photon imaging of GCaMP6f- expressing human neural cells, we define and quantify the embryonic-like features of their spontaneous activity. This is substantiated by detailed electron microscopy (EM) of the graft. We relate this to the synaptic development the neurons undergo up to 7 months in vivo. This system can now be used further for the genetic or experimental manipulation of developing hiPSC-derived cells addressing neurodevelopmental diseases like schizophrenia or Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Prefrontal nicotinic receptors control novel social interaction between mice.

Social behavior is a defining mammalian feature that integrates emotional and motivational processes with external rewarding stimuli. It is thus an appropriate readout for complex behaviors, yet its neuronal and molecular bases remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the role of the mouse prefrontal area, particularly the involvement of ß2-subunit nicotinic receptors (ß2*-nAChRs) in a paradigm of social behavior with concurrent motivations. We previously observed that mice lacking ß2*-nAChRs (ß2(-/-)) display increased time in social contact and exaggerated approach movements toward the novel conspecific. Here, combining behavioral analysis, localized brain lesions, and lentiviral gene rescue, we found that c-Fos expression is specifically activated in the prelimbic (PrL) area of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of mice exposed to a novel conspecific; lesions of the PrL area in wild-type mice produce the same social pattern as in ß2(-/-) mice; and virally mediated reexpression of the ß2-subunit in the PrL area of ß2(-/-) mice rescues behavioral components in the social interaction task up to normal levels. Together, these data reveal that social interactions particularly mobilize the PrL area of the mouse PFC and that the presence of functional PrL ß2*-nAChRs is necessary for this integrated behavior to emerge.

Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) plays a major role in the formation of rabies virus Negri Bodies.

Human neurons express the innate immune response receptor, Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3). TLR3 levels are increased in pathological conditions such as brain virus infection. Here, we further investigated the production, cellular localisation, and function of neuronal TLR3 during neuronotropic rabies virus (RABV) infection in human neuronal cells. Following RABV infection, TLR3 is not only present in endosomes, as observed in the absence of infection, but also in detergent-resistant perinuclear inclusion bodies. As well as TLR3, these inclusion bodies contain the viral genome and viral proteins (N and P, but not G). The size and composition of inclusion bodies and the absence of a surrounding membrane, as shown by electron microscopy, suggest they correspond to the previously described Negri Bodies (NBs). NBs are not formed in the absence of TLR3, and TLR3(-/-) mice -- in which brain tissue was less severely infected -- had a better survival rate than WT mice. These observations demonstrate that TLR3 is a major molecule involved in the spatial arrangement of RABV-induced NBs and viral replication. This study shows how viruses can exploit cellular proteins and compartmentalisation for their own benefit.

A chimeric mouse model to study human iPSC-derived neurons: the case of a truncating SHANK3 mutation.

Using human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), recent studies have shown that the events underlying autism spectrum disorders (ASD) can occur during neonatal development. We previously analyzed the iPSC-derived pyramidal cortical neurons of a subset of patients with ASD carrying de novo heterozygous mutations in postsynaptic SHANK3 protein, in culture. We reported altered spinogenesis of those neurons. The transplantation of human iPSC-derived neuronal precursors into mouse brain represents a novel option for in vivo analysis of mutations affecting the human brain. In this study, we transplanted the neuronal precursor cells (NPC) into the cortex of newborn mice to analyze their integration and maturation at early stages of development and studied axonal projections of transplanted human neurons into adult mouse brain. We then co-transplanted NPC from a control individual and from a patient carrying a de novo heterozygous SHANK3 mutation. We observed a reduction in cell soma size of selective neuronal categories and in axonal projections at 30 days post-transplantation. In contrast to previous in vitro studies, we did not observe any alteration in spinogenesis at this early age. The humanized chimeric mouse models offer the means to analyze ASD-associated mutations further and provide the opportunity to visualize phenotypes in vivo.

Turning astrocytes from the rostral migratory stream into neurons: a role for the olfactory sensory organ.

Neurogenesis persists within a few restricted areas of the adult mammalian brain, giving rise to neurons that functionally integrate into preexisting circuits. One of these areas, the subventricular zone (SVZ), was believed, until recently, to be the unique source providing the adult olfactory bulb (OB) with newborn neurons. Because of the fact that neuroblasts derived in the SVZ migrate through the rostral migratory stream (RMS) en route to the OB, the existence of candidate neural stem cells within the RMS was long overlooked. Here, we confirm and considerably extend recent evidence for the existence of adult neural stem cells within the RMS, and go on to investigate their proliferative regulation. Specifically targeting RMS-astrocytes with lentiviral vectors encoding GFP, we demonstrate that glial cells in the RMS differentiate into both OB granule and periglomerular interneurons. In addition, ultrastructural analysis unambiguously reveals the astrocytic nature of stem cells in the adult RMS, and patch-clamp recordings demonstrate the functional integration of RMS-derived interneurons into OB circuitry. Proliferative regulation was investigated via two contrasting manipulations: exposure to an odor-enriched environment that enhances candidate stem cell proliferation in both the RMS and SVZ, and chemical lesion of the main olfactory epithelium that increases cell proliferation in the RMS only. New neurons in the adult OB can therefore arise from different neurogenic areas that can be separately regulated.

Llama VHH antibody fragments against GFAP: better diffusion in fixed tissues than classical monoclonal antibodies.

Camelids produce antibodies made of homodimeric heavy chains, and the antigen-binding region being composed of a single domain called VHH. These VHHs are much smaller than complete IgG. They are also more thermostable and more soluble in water; they should, therefore, diffuse more readily in the tissues. VHHs, expressed in bacteria, are easier to produce than conventional monoclonal antibodies. Because of these special characteristics, these antibody fragments could have interesting developments in immunohistochemistry and in the development of biomarkers. To test the possibility of their use in immunohistochemistry (IHC), we selected the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a well-known marker of astrocytes. One alpaca (Lama pacos) was immunized against GFAP. Lymphocytes were isolated; the DNA was extracted; the VHH-coding sequences were selectively amplified. Three VHHs with a high affinity for GFAP and their corresponding mRNA were selected by ribosome display. Large quantities of the recombinant VHHs coupled with different tags were harvested from transfected bacteria. One of them was shown to immunolabel strongly and specifically to GFAP of human astrocytes in tissue sections. The quality of the IHC was comparable or, in some aspects, superior to the quality obtained with conventional IgG. The VHH was shown to diffuse on a longer distance than conventional monoclonal antibodies in fixed cortical tissue: a property that may be useful in immunolabeling of thick sections.

[Brain synaptogenesis and epigenesis]. / Synaptogenèses et épigenèses cérébrales.

Synaptic plasticity, or epigenesis, is present and varies throughout the whole life of the cerebral cortex. The adult synapse is formed of large and variable proteins assemblies acting as molecular switches leading to many distinct functional states. In the flow of activity circulating through the synaptic circuits, these multiple synaptic states transitions are modulated by the levels and sequences of activations of the pre- and post-synaptic domains. The efficiency of synaptic transmission is also modulated by competition and/or cooperativity with neighbouring synapses, and by many neuromodulations. Some transitions eventually lead to synaptogenesis. In the adult cerebral cortex, synaptogenesis remains a local event; axonal and dendritic arbors are not reshaped. On the contrary, during pre- and post-natal synaptogenesis, the same molecular mechanisms lead to a significant reorganization of the axonal and dendritic arbors. Early in the development, synapses are generated and differentiate under the control of robust mechanisms governed by genes. Then, during the critical periods, extending from the end of gestation to the end of puberty, the refinement of the synaptic architecture becomes experience-expectant. This "epigenetic opening" of synaptogenesis to environment is maximal in the human brain. It is the source of the exceptional cognitive adaptability of our species, and possibly one of its major fragility. Epigenetic manipulations of these critical periods are undertaken, allowing restoration of synaptic plasticity also in the adult brain.

Localization of [3H]nicotine, [3H]cytisine, [3H]epibatidine, and [125I]alpha-bungarotoxin binding sites in the brain of Macaca mulatta.

We determined the localization of [(3)H]nicotine, [(3)H]cytisine, [(3)H]epibatidine, and [(125)I]alpha-bungarotoxin binding sites in the brain of rhesus monkey by means of receptor autoradiography. The labelings by [(3)H]nicotine, [(3)H]cytisine, and [(3)H]epibatidine were highly concordant, except for epibatidine. Layer IV of some cortical areas, most thalamic nuclei, and presubiculum displayed high levels of labeling for the three ligands. Moderate levels of binding were detected in the subiculum, the septum, and the mesencephalon. Low levels were present in layers I-II and VI of the cortex, the cornu Ammonis, the dentate gyrus, and the amygdala. In addition, the level of epibatidine labeling was very high in the epithalamic nuclei and the interpeduncular nucleus, whereas labeling by nicotine and cytisine was very weak in the same regions. The distribution of [(125)I]alpha-bungarotoxin binding differed from the binding of the three agonists. The labeling was dense in layer I of most cortical areas, dentate gyrus, stratum lacunosum-moleculare of CA1 field, several thalamic nuclei, and medial habenula. A moderate labeling was found in layers V and VI of the prefrontal and frontal cortices, layer IV of primary visual cortex, amygdala, septum, hypothalamus, and some mesencenphalic nuclei. A weak signal was also detected in subiculum, claustrum, stratum oriens, and stratum lucidum of cornu Ammonis and also in some mesencephalic nuclei. The distribution of nicotine, cytisine, and epibatidine bindings corresponds broadly to the patterns observed in rodents, with the marked exception of the epithalamus. However, in monkey, those distributions match the distribution of alpha2 messenger RNA, rather than that of alpha4 transcripts as it exists in rodent brains. The distribution of the binding sites for alpha-bungarotoxin is larger in the brain of rhesus monkeys than in rodent brain, suggesting a more important role of alpha7 receptors in primates.