Identifying risk factors and key strategies in linkage to outpatient psychiatric care.

OBJECTIVE: The substantial failure of psychiatric patients to engage in outpatient specialty mental health care after an acute hospitalization at a time when managed care companies and others increasingly hold hospitals accountable for outcomes underscores the importance of identifying patients at high risk for not completing referrals. This study explored patient risk factors for not completing referrals and examined the success of several interventions targeted to achieving linkage with outpatient care. METHOD: A clinically detailed, structured form was used in abstracting information from the medical records of 229 inpatients with a primary psychiatric diagnosis. Clinicians and staff at outpatient programs were contacted to determine whether patients completed their referrals. RESULTS: Approximately two-thirds (65%) of the patients failed to attend scheduled or rescheduled initial outpatient mental health appointments after a hospital discharge. At high risk for unsuccessful linkage to outpatient care were patients with a persistent mental illness and those who had no prior public psychiatric hospitalization, were admitted involuntarily, and had longer lengths of stay. Controlling for risk factors, three clinical interventions used during the hospital stay more than tripled the odds of successful linkage to outpatient care: communication about patients' discharge plans between inpatient staff and outpatient clinicians, patients' starting outpatient programs before discharge, and family involvement during the hospital stay. CONCLUSIONS: Effective clinical bridging strategies can be used to avoid unnecessary gaps in the delivery of psychiatric services. Incorporating these strategies into routine care would enhance continuity of care, especially for some high-risk patients.

Is the substance abuse of inpatients with schizophrenia overlooked?

The utility of medical records and clinician reports for assessing substance abuse among inpatients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder was assessed in a sample of 296 patients recruited from four general hospitals in New York City. Measures derived from the medical record, the discharge summary, and primary clinician reports are compared to the results of a structured diagnostic interview. Analysis of the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and overall accuracy of the nondiagnostic sources found unexpectedly high levels of detection. Discharge summaries had the lowest sensitivity when compared to the diagnostic interview, raising concern that inpatient staff and clinicians may fail to communicate substance abuse problems to outpatient providers.

Prediction of homelessness within three months of discharge among inpatients with schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVE: The authors' goal was to identify factors that place inpatients with schizophrenia at risk of becoming homeless after hospital discharge. METHODS: Patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder (N=263) were assessed at discharge from general hospitals in New York City and reassessed three months later to evaluate whether they had become homeless. Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics associated with homelessness were identified using likelihood ratio chi square analysis and logistic regression. RESULTS: Twenty patients (7.6 percent) reported an episode of homelessness during the follow-up period. Patients who had a drug use disorder at hospital discharge were significantly more likely to report becoming homeless than those without a drug use disorder. Patients with a total score above 40 on the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) at hospital discharge were more likely to report becoming homeless than patients with lower scores, as were those with Global Assessment Scores less than 43. Twelve of 30 patients with a drug use disorder, a BPRS score above 40, and a GAS score less than 43 at hospital discharge reported becoming homeless. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of a drug use disorder, persistent psychiatric symptoms, and impaired global functioning at the time of hospital discharge poses a substantial short-term risk of homelessness among patients with schizophrenia. Patients who fit this profile may be candidates for community-based programs that are specifically aimed at preventing homelessness among patients with severe mental illness.

Linking inpatients with schizophrenia to outpatient care.

OBJECTIVE: This study focused on inpatients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder who were scheduled to begin outpatient care with clinicians who had not previously treated them. The authors evaluated the effects of communication between the patients and their outpatient clinicians before discharge on patients' referral compliance, psychiatric symptoms, and community function at follow-up three months after discharge. METHODS: A total of 104 adult inpatients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder who were scheduled to receive outpatient care from clinicians who had not previously treated them were evaluated at hospital discharge and again three months later. Comparisons were made between patients who had telephone or face-to-face contact with an outpatient clinician before hospital discharge and patients who did not have such contact. RESULTS: About half (51 percent) of the inpatient sample communicated with an outpatient clinician before leaving the hospital. Compared with patients who had no communication, those who spoke with an outpatient clinician were significantly more likely to complete the outpatient referral. After baseline scores and other covariates were controlled for, predischarge contact with an outpatient clinician was associated with a significantly lower total Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale score at follow-up and less self-assessed difficulty controlling symptoms. Nonsignificant trends toward improved medication compliance and a lower rate of homelessness were also found. The two patients groups did not significantly differ in the proportion who were readmitted to the hospital or who made a psychiatric emergency room visit during the follow-up period. CONCLUSIONS: Direct communication between inpatients and new outpatient clinicians may help smooth the transition to outpatient care and thereby contribute to improved control of clinical symptoms.

Predicting medication noncompliance after hospital discharge among patients with schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVE: The study sought to identify predictors of noncompliance with medication in a cohort of patients with schizophrenia after discharge from acute hospitalization. METHODS: Adult psychiatric inpatients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder for whom oral antipsychotics were prescribed (N=213) were evaluated at hospital discharge and three months later to assess medication compliance. Comparisons were made between patients who reported stopping their medications for one week or longer and patients who reported more continuous medication use. RESULTS: Of the 213 patients, about a fifth (19.2 percent) met the criterion for noncompliance. Medication noncompliance was significantly associated with an increased risk of rehospitalization, emergency room visits, homelessness, and symptom exacerbation. Compared with the compliant group, the noncompliant group was significantly more likely to have a history of medication noncompliance, substance abuse or dependence, and difficulty recognizing their own symptoms. Patients who became medication noncompliant were significantly less likely to have formed a good therapeutic alliance during hospitalization as measured by inpatient staff reports and were more likely to have family members who refused to become involved in their treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with schizophrenia at high risk for medication noncompliance after acute hospitalization are characterized by a history of medication noncompliance, recent substance use, difficulty recognizing their own symptoms, a weak alliance with inpatient staff, and family who refuse to become involved in inpatient treatment.

Psychiatric reimbursement reform in New York State: lessons in implementing change.

The failure of an innovative and ambitious reform in the psychiatric reimbursement system of New York State is examined for specific lessons of value for other states as they implement new payment strategies to encourage improved treatment of the mentally ill in general hospitals and community settings. The New York payment system was comprehensive, embracing both inpatient and outpatient care, and had significant support in the hospital and professional communities. Still, its impact on hospital performance was small and only partially consistent with its goals. For mental health reimbursement reform to succeed, state administrators must provide more clear, sustained, and forceful signals that take account of the real barriers to implementation; they must also ensure that the financial incentives and rewards are recognized by those who carry out the actions needed to translate goals into reality.

Reliability of Medicaid claims files for use in psychiatric diagnoses and service delivery.

To investigate the reliability of Medicaid claims data for use in research, clinical decision-making, and policy, medical records were abstracted of 105 inpatient stays on the psychiatric service of a large general hospital. Primary and secondary diagnoses and outpatient specialty mental health services after hospitalization were compared between Medicaid claims data and medical record information. Primary and secondary diagnoses were reliable, but claims data failed to capture several types of outpatient services. This suggests strategies to use claims files more appropriately.

Assessing clinical predictions of early rehospitalization in schizophrenia.

This study determines patient characteristics that predict early hospital readmission in schizophrenia and evaluates the extent to which inpatient staff accurately predict these readmissions. Adult inpatients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder (N = 262) were evaluated at hospital discharge and 3 months later to assess hospital readmission. At hospital discharge, inpatient staff were asked to identify which patients were likely to be readmitted during this period. Comparisons were made between patients who were or were not readmitted and between readmitted patients who were or were not identified by staff as likely to be readmitted; 24.4% of the sample were readmitted within 3 months of hospital discharge. Early readmission was associated with four or more previous hospitalizations (85.7% vs. 57.7%, p = .004), comorbid substance use disorder (60.3% vs. 35.5%, p = .0006), major depression (40.6% vs. 26.8%, p = .04), absence of a family meeting with inpatient staff (58.2% vs. 41.8%, p = .02), and prescription of a conventional rather than an atypical antipsychotic medication (93.7% vs. 83.8%, p = .045). Twelve of the 63 readmitted patients were correctly predicted by staff to re-hospitalize. Staff tended to overestimate the risk of rehospitalization in patients with a poor therapeutic alliance, low global function, or initial involuntary admission and to underestimate the risk in patients with alcohol use disorders or four or more previous psychiatric hospitalizations. Early rehospitalization is common in schizophrenia and difficult to predict. Greater emphasis on comorbid alcohol use disorders and a history of multiple previous admissions may help clinicians identify patients at greatest risk for early rehospitalization.

Studying inpatient treatment practices in schizophrenia: an integrated methodology.

A multi-phase research project examining current inpatient psychiatric practices and the relationships between different treatments and patient outcomes is described. The study sample includes Medicaid patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia who have been treated in inpatient units of general hospitals in New York State. The research is focused at the heart of the debate concerning the appropriate role of inpatient psychiatric care within a balanced system of mental health services. Addressed are the conceptual issues that guided the project, research strategies, instrument development, measures used and the preliminary findings that informed successive phases. Design issues are reviewed in light of the conceptual and pragmatic decisions made with a multiple site design. A compelling argument is made about the need for a long-term treatment orientation that prepares patients for what lies ahead and that assures communication and continuity between inpatient and outpatient care.