Sex-specific increases in myostatin and SMAD3 contribute to obesity-related insulin resistance in human skeletal muscle and primary human myotubes.

The purpose of the present study was to determine the effects of obesity and biological sex on myostatin expression in humans and to examine the direct effects of myostatin, SMAD2, and SMAD3 on insulin signaling in primary human skeletal muscle cells (HSkMCs). For cohort 1, 15 lean [body mass index (BMI): 22.1 ± 0.5 kg/m2; n = 8 males; n = 7 females] and 14 obese (BMI: 40.6 ± 1.4 kg/m2; n = 7 males; n = 7 females) individuals underwent skeletal muscle biopsies and an oral glucose tolerance test. For cohort 2, 14 young lean (BMI: 22.4 ± 1.9 kg/m2; n = 6 males; n = 8 females) and 14 obese (BMI: 39.3 ± 7.9 kg/m2; n = 6 males; n = 8 females) individuals underwent muscle biopsies for primary HSkMC experiments. Plasma mature myostatin (P = 0.041), skeletal muscle precursor myostatin (P = 0.048), and skeletal muscle SMAD3 (P = 0.029) were elevated in obese females compared to lean females, and plasma mature myostatin (r = 0.58, P = 0.029) and skeletal muscle SMAD3 (r = 0.56, P = 0.037) were associated with insulin resistance in females but not males. Twenty-four hours of myostatin treatment impaired insulin signaling in primary HSkMCs derived from females (P < 0.024) but not males. Overexpression of SMAD3, but not SMAD2, impaired insulin-stimulated AS160 phosphorylation in HSkMCs derived from lean females (-27%, P = 0.040), whereas silencing SMAD3 improved insulin-stimulated AS160 phosphorylation and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake (25%, P < 0.014) in HSkMCs derived from obese females. These results suggest for the first time that myostatin-induced impairments in skeletal muscle insulin signaling are sex specific and that increased body fat in females is associated with detrimental elevations in myostatin and SMAD3, which contribute to obesity-related insulin resistance.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Obesity is considered a main risk factor for the development of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. The present study utilizes in vivo and in vitro experiments in human skeletal muscle to demonstrate for the first time that females are inherently more susceptible to myostatin-induced insulin resistance, which is further enhanced with obesity due to increased myostatin and SMAD3 expression.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1-α overexpression improves angiogenic signalling potential of skeletal muscle-derived extracellular vesicles.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? Skeletal muscle extracellular vesicles likely act as pro-angiogenic signalling factors: does overexpression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1-α (PGC-1α) alter skeletal muscle myotube extracellular vesicle release, contents and angiogenic potential? What is the main finding and its importance? Overexpression of PGC-1α results in secretion of extracellular vesicles that elevate measures of angiogenesis and protect against acute oxidative stress in vitro. Skeletal muscle with high levels of PGC-1α expression, commonly associated with exercise induced angiogenesis and high basal capillarization, may secrete extracellular vesicles that support capillary growth and maintenance. ABSTRACT: Skeletal muscle capillarization is proportional to muscle fibre mitochondrial content and oxidative capacity. Skeletal muscle cells secrete many factors that regulate neighbouring capillary endothelial cells (ECs), including extracellular vesicles (SkM-EVs). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1-α (PGC-1α) regulates mitochondrial biogenesis and the oxidative phenotype in skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle PGC-1α also regulates secretion of multiple angiogenic factors, but it is unknown whether PGC-1α regulates SkM-EV release, contents and angiogenic signalling potential. PGC-1α was overexpressed via adenovirus in primary human myotubes. EVs were collected from PGC-1α-overexpressing myotubes (PGC-EVs) as well as from green fluorescent protein-overexpressing myotubes (GFP-EVs), and from untreated myotubes. EV release and select mRNA contents were measured from EVs. Additionally, ECs were treated with EVs to measure angiogenic potential of EVs in normal conditions and following an oxidative stress challenge. PGC-1α overexpression did not impact EV release but did elevate EV content of mRNAs for several antioxidant proteins (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, superoxide dismutase 2, glutathione peroxidase). PGC-EV treatment of cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) increased their proliferation (+36.6%), tube formation (length: +28.1%; number: +25.7%) and cellular viability (+52.9%), and reduced reactive oxygen species levels (-41%) compared to GFP-EVs. Additionally, PGC-EV treatment protected against tube formation impairments and induction of cellular senescence following acute oxidative stress. Overexpression of PGC-1α in human myotubes increases the angiogenic potential of SkM-EVs. These angiogenic benefits coincided with increased anti-oxidative capacity of recipient HUVECs. High PGC-1α expression in skeletal muscle may prompt the release of SkM-EVs that support vascular redox homeostasis and angiogenesis.

Insulin Resistance Is Not Sustained Following Denervation in Glycolytic Skeletal Muscle.

Denervation rapidly induces insulin resistance (i.e., impairments in insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and signaling proteins) in skeletal muscle. Surprisingly, whether this metabolic derangement is long-lasting is presently not clear. The main goal of this study was to determine if insulin resistance is sustained in both oxidative soleus and glycolytic extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles following long-term (28 days) denervation. Mouse hindlimb muscles were denervated via unilateral sciatic nerve resection. Both soleus and EDL muscles atrophied ~40%. Strikingly, while denervation impaired submaximal insulin-stimulated [3H]-2-deoxyglucose uptake ~30% in the soleus, it enhanced submaximal (~120%) and maximal (~160%) insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in the EDL. To assess possible mechanism(s), immunoblots were performed. Denervation did not consistently alter insulin signaling (e.g., p-Akt (Thr308):Akt; p-TBC1D1 [phospho-Akt substrate (PAS)]:TBC1D1; or p-TBC1D4 (PAS):TBC1D4) in either muscle. However, denervation decreased glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) levels ~65% in the soleus but increased them ~90% in the EDL. To assess the contribution of GLUT4 to the enhanced EDL muscle glucose uptake, muscle-specific GLUT4 knockout mice were examined. Loss of GLUT4 prevented the denervation-induced increase in insulin-stimulated glucose uptake. In conclusion, the denervation results sustained insulin resistance in the soleus but enhanced insulin sensitivity in the EDL due to increased GLUT4 protein levels.

Electrical pulse stimulation induces differential responses in insulin action in myotubes from severely obese individuals.

KEY POINTS: Exercise/exercise training can enhance insulin sensitivity through adaptations in skeletal muscle, the primary site of insulin-mediated glucose disposal; however, in humans the range of improvement can vary substantially. The purpose of this study was to determine if obesity influences the magnitude of the exercise response in relation to improving insulin sensitivity in human skeletal muscle. Electrical pulse stimulation (EPS; 24 h) of primary human skeletal muscle myotubes improved insulin action in tissue from both lean and severely obese individuals, but responses to EPS were blunted with obesity. EPS improved insulin signal transduction in myotubes from lean but not severely obese subjects and increased AMP accumulation and AMPK Thr172 phosphorylation, but to a lesser degree in myotubes from the severely obese. These data reveal that myotubes of severely obese individuals enhance insulin action and stimulate exercise-responsive molecules with contraction, but in a manner and magnitude that differs from lean subjects. ABSTRACT: Exercise/muscle contraction can enhance whole-body insulin sensitivity; however, in humans the range of improvements can vary substantially. In order, to determine if obesity influences the magnitude of the exercise response, this study compared the effects of electrical pulse stimulation (EPS)-induced contractile activity upon primary myotubes derived from lean and severely obese (BMI ≥ 40 kg/m2 ) women. Prior to muscle contraction, insulin action was compromised in myotubes from the severely obese as was evident from reduced insulin-stimulated glycogen synthesis, glucose oxidation, glucose uptake, insulin signal transduction (IRS1, Akt, TBC1D4), and insulin-stimulated GLUT4 translocation. EPS (24 h) increased AMP, IMP, AMPK Thr172 phosphorylation, PGC1α content, and insulin action in myotubes of both the lean and severely obese subjects. However, despite normalizing indices of insulin action to levels seen in the lean control (non-EPS) condition, responses to EPS were blunted with obesity. EPS improved insulin signal transduction in myotubes from lean but not severely obese subjects and EPS increased AMP accumulation and AMPK Thr172 phosphorylation, but to a lesser degree in myotubes from the severely obese. These data reveal that myotubes of severely obese individuals enhance insulin action and stimulate exercise-responsive molecules with contraction, but in a manner and magnitude that differs from lean subjects.

Increased Adenine Nucleotide Degradation in Skeletal Muscle Atrophy.

Adenine nucleotides (AdNs: ATP, ADP, AMP) are essential biological compounds that facilitate many necessary cellular processes by providing chemical energy, mediating intracellular signaling, and regulating protein metabolism and solubilization. A dramatic reduction in total AdNs is observed in atrophic skeletal muscle across numerous disease states and conditions, such as cancer, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, COPD, sepsis, muscular dystrophy, denervation, disuse, and sarcopenia. The reduced AdNs in atrophic skeletal muscle are accompanied by increased expression/activities of AdN degrading enzymes and the accumulation of degradation products (IMP, hypoxanthine, xanthine, uric acid), suggesting that the lower AdN content is largely the result of increased nucleotide degradation. Furthermore, this characteristic decrease of AdNs suggests that increased nucleotide degradation contributes to the general pathophysiology of skeletal muscle atrophy. In view of the numerous energetic, and non-energetic, roles of AdNs in skeletal muscle, investigations into the physiological consequences of AdN degradation may provide valuable insight into the mechanisms of muscle atrophy.

Overexpression of PGC-1α increases peroxisomal activity and mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation in human primary myotubes.

Peroxisomes are indispensable organelles for lipid metabolism in humans, and their biogenesis has been assumed to be under regulation by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). However, recent studies in hepatocytes suggest that the mitochondrial proliferator PGC-1α (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α) also acts as an upstream transcriptional regulator for enhancing peroxisomal abundance and associated activity. It is unknown whether the regulatory mechanism(s) for enhancing peroxisomal function is through the same node as mitochondrial biogenesis in human skeletal muscle (HSkM) and whether fatty acid oxidation (FAO) is affected. Primary myotubes from vastus lateralis biopsies from lean donors (BMI = 24.0 ± 0.6 kg/m2; n = 6) were exposed to adenovirus encoding human PGC-1α or GFP control. Peroxisomal biogenesis proteins (peroxins) and genes (PEXs) responsible for proliferation and functions were assessed by Western blotting and real-time qRT-PCR, respectively. [1-14C]palmitic acid and [1-14C]lignoceric acid (exclusive peroxisomal-specific substrate) were used to assess mitochondrial oxidation of peroxisomal-derived metabolites. After overexpression of PGC-1α, 1) peroxisomal membrane protein 70 kDa (PMP70), PEX19, and mitochondrial citrate synthetase protein content were significantly elevated (P < 0.05), 2) PGC-1α, PMP70, key PEXs, and peroxisomal ß-oxidation mRNA expression levels were significantly upregulated (P < 0.05), and 3) a concomitant increase in lignoceric acid oxidation by both peroxisomal and mitochondrial activity was observed (P < 0.05). These novel findings demonstrate that, in addition to the proliferative effect on mitochondria, PGC-1α can induce peroxisomal activity and accompanying elevations in long-chain and very-long-chain fatty acid oxidation by a peroxisomal-mitochondrial functional cooperation, as observed in HSkM cells.

Diminished force production and mitochondrial respiratory deficits are strain-dependent myopathies of subacute limb ischemia.

OBJECTIVE: Reduced skeletal muscle mitochondrial function might be a contributing mechanism to the myopathy and activity based limitations that typically plague patients with peripheral arterial disease (PAD). We hypothesized that mitochondrial dysfunction, myofiber atrophy, and muscle contractile deficits are inherently determined by the genetic background of regenerating ischemic mouse skeletal muscle, similar to how patient genetics affect the distribution of disease severity with clinical PAD. METHODS: Genetically ischemia protected (C57BL/6) and susceptible (BALB/c) mice underwent either unilateral subacute hind limb ischemia (SLI) or myotoxic injury (cardiotoxin) for 28 days. Limbs were monitored for blood flow and tissue oxygen saturation and tissue was collected for the assessment of histology, muscle contractile force, gene expression, mitochondrial content, and respiratory function. RESULTS: Despite similar tissue O2 saturation and mitochondrial content between strains, BALB/c mice suffered persistent ischemic myofiber atrophy (55.3% of C57BL/6) and muscle contractile deficits (approximately 25% of C57BL/6 across multiple stimulation frequencies). SLI also reduced BALB/c mitochondrial respiratory capacity, assessed in either isolated mitochondria (58.3% of C57BL/6 at SLI on day (d)7, 59.1% of C57BL/6 at SLI d28 across multiple conditions) or permeabilized myofibers (38.9% of C57BL/6 at SLI d7; 76.2% of C57BL/6 at SLI d28 across multiple conditions). SLI also resulted in decreased calcium retention capacity (56.0% of C57BL/6) in BALB/c mitochondria. Nonischemic cardiotoxin injury revealed similar recovery of myofiber area, contractile force, mitochondrial respiratory capacity, and calcium retention between strains. CONCLUSIONS: Ischemia-susceptible BALB/c mice suffered persistent muscle atrophy, impaired muscle function, and mitochondrial respiratory deficits during SLI. Interestingly, parental strain susceptibility to myopathy appears specific to regenerative insults including an ischemic component. Our findings indicate that the functional deficits that plague PAD patients could include mitochondrial respiratory deficits genetically inherent to the regenerating muscle myofibers.

Lipid exposure elicits differential responses in gene expression and DNA methylation in primary human skeletal muscle cells from severely obese women.

The skeletal muscle of obese individuals exhibits an impaired ability to increase the expression of genes linked with fatty acid oxidation (FAO) upon lipid exposure. The present study determined if this response could be attributed to differential DNA methylation signatures. RNA and DNA were isolated from primary human skeletal muscle cells (HSkMC) from lean and severely obese women following lipid incubation. mRNA expression and DNA methylation were quantified for genes that globally regulate FAO [PPARγ coactivator (PGC-1α), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), nuclear respiratory factors (NRFs)]. With lipid oversupply, increases in NRF-1, NRF-2, PPARα, and PPARδ expression were dampened in skeletal muscle from severely obese compared with lean women. The expression of genes downstream of the PPARs and NRFs also exhibited a pattern of not increasing as robustly upon lipid exposure with obesity. Increases in CpG methylation near the transcription start site with lipid oversupply were positively related to PPARδ expression; increases in methylation with lipid were depressed in HSkMC from severely obese women. With severe obesity, there is an impaired ability to upregulate global transcriptional regulators of FAO in response to lipid exposure. Transient changes in DNA methylation patterns and differences in the methylation signature with severe obesity may play a role in the transcriptional regulation of PPARδ in response to lipid. The persistence of differential responses to lipid in HSkMC derived from lean and obese subjects supports the possibility of stable epigenetic programming of skeletal muscle cells by the respective environments.

Differential epigenetic and transcriptional response of the skeletal muscle carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1B (CPT1B) gene to lipid exposure with obesity.

The ability to increase fatty acid oxidation (FAO) in response to dietary lipid is impaired in the skeletal muscle of obese individuals, which is associated with a failure to coordinately upregulate genes involved with FAO. While the molecular mechanisms contributing to this metabolic inflexibility are not evident, a possible candidate is carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1B (CPT1B), which is a rate-limiting step in FAO. The present study was undertaken to determine if the differential response of skeletal muscle CPT1B gene transcription to lipid between lean and severely obese subjects is linked to epigenetic modifications (DNA methylation and histone acetylation) that impact transcriptional activation. In primary human skeletal muscle cultures the expression of CPT1B was blunted in severely obese women compared with their lean counterparts in response to lipid, which was accompanied by changes in CpG methylation, H3/H4 histone acetylation, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-δ and hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α transcription factor occupancy at the CPT1B promoter. Methylation of specific CpG sites in the CPT1B promoter that correlated with CPT1B transcript level blocked the binding of the transcription factor upstream stimulatory factor, suggesting a potential causal mechanism. These findings indicate that epigenetic modifications may play important roles in the regulation of CPT1B in response to a physiologically relevant lipid mixture in human skeletal muscle, a major site of fatty acid catabolism, and that differential DNA methylation may underlie the depressed expression of CPT1B in response to lipid, contributing to the metabolic inflexibility associated with severe obesity.

AMP-activated protein kinase inhibits transforming growth factor-ß-mediated vascular smooth muscle cell growth: implications for a Smad-3-dependent mechanism.

Dysfunctional vascular growth is a major contributor to cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Growth factor-induced activation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) results in a phenotypic switch from a quiescent, contractile state to a proliferative state foundational to vessel pathology. Transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) is a multifunctional signaling protein capable of growth stimulation via Smad signaling. Although Smad signaling is well characterized in many tissues, its role in VSM growth disorders remains controversial. Recent data from our lab and others implicate the metabolic regulator AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in VSM growth inhibition. We hypothesized that AMPK inhibits VSMC proliferation by reducing TGF-ß-mediated growth in a Smad-dependent fashion. Treatment of rat VSMCs with the AMPK agonist AICAR significantly decreased TGF-ß-mediated activation of synthetic Smad2 and Smad3 and increased inhibitory Smad7. Flow cytometry and automated cell counting revealed that AICAR reversed TGF-ß-mediated cell cycle progression at 24 h and elevated cell numbers at 48 h. TGF-ß/Smad signaling increased the G0/G1 inducers cyclin D1/cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 4 and cyclin E/CDK2; however, AICAR reversed these events while increasing cytostatic p21. The specific role of Smad3 in AMPK-mediated reversal of TGF-ß-induced growth was then explored using adenovirus-mediated Smad3 overexpression (Ad-Smad3). Ad-Smad3 cells increased cell cycle progression and cell numbers compared with Ad-GFP control cells, and these were restored to basal levels with concomitant AICAR treatment. These findings support a novel AMPK target in TGF-ß/Smad3 for VSMC growth control and support continued investigation of AMPK as a possible therapeutic target for reducing vascular growth disorders.

SMAD3 augments FoxO3-induced MuRF-1 promoter activity in a DNA-binding-dependent manner.

Muscle-specific RING finger-1 (MuRF-1), a ubiquitin ligase and key regulator of proteasome-dependent protein degradation, is highly expressed during skeletal muscle atrophy. The transcription factor forkhead box O3 (FoxO3) induces MuRF-1 expression, but the direct role of other major atrophy-related transcription factors, such as SMAD3, is largely unknown. The goal of this study was to determine whether SMAD3 individually regulates, or with FoxO3 coordinately regulates, MuRF-1 expression. In cultured myotubes or human embryonic kidney cells, MuRF-1 mRNA content and promoter activity were increased by FoxO3 but not by SMAD3 overexpression. However, FoxO3 and SMAD3 coexpression synergistically increased MuRF-1 mRNA and promoter activity. Mutation of the SMAD-binding element (SBE) in the proximal MuRF-1 promoter or overexpression of a SMAD3 DNA-binding mutant attenuated FoxO3-dependent MuRF-1 promoter activation, showing that SMAD binding to DNA is required for optimal activation of FoxO3-induced transcription of MuRF-1. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation, SMAD3 DNA binding increased FoxO3 abundance and SBE mutation reduced FoxO3 abundance on the MuRF-1 promoter. Furthermore, SMAD3 overexpression dose-dependently increased FoxO3 protein content, and coexpression of FoxO3 and SMAD3 synergistically increased FoxO-dependent gene transcription [assessed with a FoxO response element (FRE)-driven reporter]. Collectively, these results show that SMAD3 regulates transcription of MuRF-1 by increasing FoxO3 binding at a conserved FRE-SBE motif within the proximal promoter region, and by increasing FoxO3 protein content and transcriptional activity. These data are the first to indicate that two major transcription factors regulating protein degradation, FoxO3 and SMAD3, converge to coordinately and directly regulate transcription of MuRF-1.

Constitutive activation of CaMKKα signaling is sufficient but not necessary for mTORC1 activation and growth in mouse skeletal muscle.

Skeletal muscle loading/overload stimulates the Ca²âº-activated, serine/threonine kinase Ca²âº/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase-α (CaMKKα); yet to date, no studies have examined whether CaMKKα regulates muscle growth. The purpose of this study was to determine if constitutive activation of CaMKKα signaling could stimulate muscle growth and if so whether CaMKKα is essential for this process. CaMKKα signaling was selectively activated in mouse muscle via expression of a constitutively active form of CaMKKα using in vivo electroporation. After 2 wk, constitutively active CaMKKα expression increased muscle weight (~10%) and protein content (~10%), demonstrating that activation of CaMKKα signaling can stimulate muscle growth. To determine if active CaMKKα expression stimulated muscle growth via increased mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling and protein synthesis, [³H]phenylalanine incorporation into proteins was assessed with or without the mTORC1 inhibitor rapamycin. Constitutively active CaMKKα increased protein synthesis ~60%, and this increase was prevented by rapamycin, demonstrating a critical role for mTORC1 in this process. To determine if CaMKKα is essential for growth, muscles from CaMKKα knockout mice were stimulated to hypertrophy via unilateral ablation of synergist muscles (overload). Surprisingly, compared with wild-type mice, muscles from CaMKKα knockout mice exhibited greater growth (~15%) and phosphorylation of the mTORC1 substrate 70-kDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase (Thr³89; ~50%), demonstrating that CaMKKα is not essential for overload-induced mTORC1 activation or muscle growth. Collectively, these results demonstrate that activation of CaMKKα signaling is sufficient but not necessary for activation of mTORC1 signaling and growth in mouse skeletal muscle.

Uric acid formation is driven by crosstalk between skeletal muscle and other cell types.

Hyperuricemia is implicated in numerous pathologies, but the mechanisms underlying uric acid production are poorly understood. Using a combination of mouse studies, cell culture studies, and human serum samples, we sought to determine the cellular source of uric acid. In mice, fasting and glucocorticoid treatment increased serum uric acid and uric acid release from ex vivo-incubated skeletal muscle. In vitro, glucocorticoids and the transcription factor FoxO3 increased purine nucleotide degradation and purine release from differentiated muscle cells, which coincided with the transcriptional upregulation of AMP deaminase 3, a rate-limiting enzyme in adenine nucleotide degradation. Heavy isotope tracing during coculture experiments revealed that oxidation of muscle purines to uric acid required their transfer from muscle cells to a cell type that expresses xanthine oxidoreductase, such as endothelial cells. Last, in healthy women, matched for age and body composition, serum uric acid was greater in individuals scoring below average on standard physical function assessments. Together, these studies reveal skeletal muscle purine degradation is an underlying driver of uric acid production, with the final step of uric acid production occurring primarily in a nonmuscle cell type. This suggests that skeletal muscle fiber purine degradation may represent a therapeutic target to reduce serum uric acid and treat numerous pathologies.

Selective inhibition of ATPase activity during contraction alters the activation of p38 MAP kinase isoforms in skeletal muscle.

Muscle contractions strongly activate p38 MAP kinases, but the precise contraction-associated sarcoplasmic event(s) (e.g., force production, energetic demands, and/or calcium cycling) that activate these kinases are still unclear. We tested the hypothesis that during contraction the phosphorylation of p38 isoforms is sensitive to the increase in ATP demand relative to ATP supply. Energetic demands were inhibited using N-benzyl-p-toluene sulphonamide (BTS, type II actomyosin) and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA, SERCA). Extensor digitorum longus muscles from Swiss Webster mice were incubated in Ringer's solution (37°C) with or without inhibitors and then stimulated at 10 Hz for 15 min. Muscles were immediately freeze-clamped for metabolite and Western blot analysis. BTS and BTS + CPA treatment decreased force production by 85%, as measured by the tension time integral, while CPA alone potentiated force by 310%. In control muscles, contractions resulted in a 73% loss of ATP content and a concomitant sevenfold increase in IMP content, a measure of sustained energetic imbalance. BTS or CPA treatment lessened the loss of ATP, but BTS + CPA treatment completely eliminated the energetic imbalance since ATP and IMP levels were nearly equal to those of non-stimulated muscles. The independent inhibition of cytosolic ATPase activities had no effect on contraction-induced p38 MAPK phosphorylation, but combined treatment prevented the increase in phosphorylation of the γ isoform while the α/ß isoforms unaffected. These observations suggest that an energetic signal may trigger phosphorylation of the p38γ isoform and also may explain how contractions differentially activate signaling pathways.

FoxO3 normalizes Smad3-induced arterial smooth muscle cell growth.

Transition of arterial smooth muscle (ASM) from a quiescent, contractile state to a growth-promoting state is a hallmark of cardiovascular disease (CVD), a leading cause of death and disability in the United States and worldwide. While many individual signals have been identified as important mechanisms in this phenotypic conversion, the combined impact of the transcription factors Smad3 and FoxO3 in ASM growth is not known. The purpose of this study was to determine that a coordinated, phosphorylation-specific relationship exists between Smad3 and FoxO3 in the control of ASM cell growth. Using a rat in vivo arterial injury model and rat primary ASM cell lysates and fractions, validated low and high serum in vitro models of respective quiescent and growth states, and adenoviral (Ad-) gene delivery for overexpression (OE) of individual and combined Smad3 and/or FoxO3, we hypothesized that FoxO3 can moderate Smad3-induced ASM cell growth. Key findings revealed unique cellular distribution of Smad3 and FoxO3 under growth conditions, with induction of both nuclear and cytosolic Smad3 yet primarily cytosolic FoxO3; Ad-Smad3 OE leading to cytosolic and nuclear expression of phosphorylated and total Smad3, with almost complete reversal of each with Ad-FoxO3 co-infection in quiescent and growth conditions; Ad-FoxO3 OE leading to enhanced cytosolic expression of phosphorylated and total FoxO3, both reduced with Ad-Smad3 co-infection in quiescent and growth conditions; Ad-FoxO3 inducing expression and activity of the ubiquitin ligase MuRF-1, which was reversed with concomitant Ad-Smad3 OE; and combined Smad3/FoxO3 OE reversing both the pro-growth impact of singular Smad3 and the cytostatic impact of singular FoxO3. A primary takeaway from these observations is the capacity of FoxO3 to reverse growth-promoting effects of Smad3 in ASM cells. Additional findings lend support for reciprocal antagonism of Smad3 on FoxO3-induced cytostasis, and these effects are dependent upon discrete phosphorylation states and cellular localization and involve MuRF-1 in the control of ASM cell growth. Lastly, results showing capacity of FoxO3 to normalize Smad3-induced ASM cell growth largely support our hypothesis, and overall findings provide evidence for utility of Smad3 and/or FoxO3 as potential therapeutic targets against abnormal ASM growth in the context of CVD.

Hypoxia Resistance Is an Inherent Phenotype of the Mouse Flexor Digitorum Brevis Skeletal Muscle.

The various functions of skeletal muscle (movement, respiration, thermogenesis, etc.) require the presence of oxygen (O2). Inadequate O2 bioavailability (ie, hypoxia) is detrimental to muscle function and, in chronic cases, can result in muscle wasting. Current therapeutic interventions have proven largely ineffective to rescue skeletal muscle from hypoxic damage. However, our lab has identified a mammalian skeletal muscle that maintains proper physiological function in an environment depleted of O2. Using mouse models of in vivo hindlimb ischemia and ex vivo anoxia exposure, we observed the preservation of force production in the flexor digitorum brevis (FDB), while in contrast the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and soleus muscles suffered loss of force output. Unlike other muscles, we found that the FDB phenotype is not dependent on mitochondria, which partially explains the hypoxia resistance. Muscle proteomes were interrogated using a discovery-based approach, which identified significantly greater expression of the transmembrane glucose transporter GLUT1 in the FDB as compared to the EDL and soleus. Through loss-and-gain-of-function approaches, we determined that GLUT1 is necessary for the FDB to survive hypoxia, but overexpression of GLUT1 was insufficient to rescue other skeletal muscles from hypoxic damage. Collectively, the data demonstrate that the FDB is uniquely resistant to hypoxic insults. Defining the mechanisms that explain the phenotype may provide insight towards developing approaches for preventing hypoxia-induced tissue damage.

CaMKK2 is not involved in contraction-stimulated AMPK activation and glucose uptake in skeletal muscle.

OBJECTIVE: The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) gets activated in response to energetic stress such as contractions and plays a vital role in regulating various metabolic processes such as insulin-independent glucose uptake in skeletal muscle. The main upstream kinase that activates AMPK through phosphorylation of α-AMPK Thr172 in skeletal muscle is LKB1, however some studies have suggested that Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase 2 (CaMKK2) acts as an alternative kinase to activate AMPK. We aimed to establish whether CaMKK2 is involved in activation of AMPK and promotion of glucose uptake following contractions in skeletal muscle. METHODS: A recently developed CaMKK2 inhibitor (SGC-CAMKK2-1) alongside a structurally related but inactive compound (SGC-CAMKK2-1N), as well as CaMKK2 knock-out (KO) mice were used. In vitro kinase inhibition selectivity and efficacy assays, as well as cellular inhibition efficacy analyses of CaMKK inhibitors (STO-609 and SGC-CAMKK2-1) were performed. Phosphorylation and activity of AMPK following contractions (ex vivo) in mouse skeletal muscles treated with/without CaMKK inhibitors or isolated from wild-type (WT)/CaMKK2 KO mice were assessed. Camkk2 mRNA in mouse tissues was measured by qPCR. CaMKK2 protein expression was assessed by immunoblotting with or without prior enrichment of calmodulin-binding proteins from skeletal muscle extracts, as well as by mass spectrometry-based proteomics of mouse skeletal muscle and C2C12 myotubes. RESULTS: STO-609 and SGC-CAMKK2-1 were equally potent and effective in inhibiting CaMKK2 in cell-free and cell-based assays, but SGC-CAMKK2-1 was much more selective. Contraction-stimulated phosphorylation and activation of AMPK were not affected with CaMKK inhibitors or in CaMKK2 null muscles. Contraction-stimulated glucose uptake was comparable between WT and CaMKK2 KO muscle. Both CaMKK inhibitors (STO-609 and SGC-CAMKK2-1) and the inactive compound (SGC-CAMKK2-1N) significantly inhibited contraction-stimulated glucose uptake. SGC-CAMKK2-1 also inhibited glucose uptake induced by a pharmacological AMPK activator or insulin. Relatively low levels of Camkk2 mRNA were detected in mouse skeletal muscle, but neither CaMKK2 protein nor its derived peptides were detectable in mouse skeletal muscle tissue. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate that pharmacological inhibition or genetic loss of CaMKK2 does not affect contraction-stimulated AMPK phosphorylation and activation, as well as glucose uptake in skeletal muscle. Previously observed inhibitory effect of STO-609 on AMPK activity and glucose uptake is likely due to off-target effects. CaMKK2 protein is either absent from adult murine skeletal muscle or below the detection limit of currently available methods.

FoxO3 coordinately activates protein degradation by the autophagic/lysosomal and proteasomal pathways in atrophying muscle cells.

Muscle atrophy occurs in many pathological states and results primarily from accelerated protein degradation and activation of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. However, the importance of lysosomes in muscle atrophy has received little attention. Activation of FoxO transcription factors is essential for the atrophy induced by denervation or fasting, and activated FoxO3 by itself causes marked atrophy of muscles and myotubes. Here, we report that FoxO3 does so by stimulating overall protein degradation and coordinately activating both lysosomal and proteasomal pathways. Surprisingly, in C2C12 myotubes, most of this increased proteolysis is mediated by lysosomes. Activated FoxO3 stimulates lysosomal proteolysis in muscle (and other cell types) by activating autophagy. FoxO3 also induces the expression of many autophagy-related genes, which are induced similarly in mouse muscles atrophying due to denervation or fasting. These studies indicate that decreased IGF-1-PI3K-Akt signaling activates autophagy not only through mTOR but also more slowly by a transcription-dependent mechanism involving FoxO3.

Liquid chromatography method for simultaneous quantification of ATP and its degradation products compatible with both UV-Vis and mass spectrometry.

ATP and its degradation products are essential metabolic and signaling molecules. Traditionally, they have been quantified via high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV-Vis detection while utilizing phosphate buffer mobile phase, but this approach is incompatible with modern mass detection. The goal of this study was to develop an ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) method free of phosphate buffer, to allow for analysis of adenine nucleotides with UV-Vis and mass spectrometry (MS) simultaneously. The final conditions used an Acquity HSS T3 premier column with a volatile ammonium acetate buffer to successfully separate and quantify ATP-related analytes in a standard mixture and in extracts from non-contracted and contracted mouse hindlimb muscles. Baseline resolution was achieved with all 10 metabolites, and a lower limit of quantification down to 1 pmol per inject was observed for most metabolites using UV-Vis. Therefore, this method allows for the reliable quantification of adenine nucleotides and their degradation products via UV-Vis and their confirmation and/or identification of unknown peaks via MS.