Quantitative nanoscale imaging of lattice distortions in epitaxial semiconductor heterostructures using nanofocused X-ray Bragg projection ptychography.

We imaged nanoscale lattice strain in a multilayer semiconductor device prototype with a new X-ray technique, nanofocused Bragg projection ptychography. Applying this technique to the epitaxial stressor layer of a SiGe-on-SOI structure, we measured the internal lattice behavior in a targeted region of a single device and demonstrated that its internal strain profile consisted of two competing lattice distortions. These results provide the strongest nondestructive test to date of continuum modeling predictions of nanoscale strain distributions.

Use of backscattered electron detector arrays for forming backscattered electron images in the scanning electron microscope.

The backscattered electron (BSE) signal in the scanning electron microscope (SEM) can be used in two different ways. The first is to give a BSE image from an area that is defined by the scanning of the electron beam (EB) over the surface of the specimen. The second is to use an array of small BSE detectors to give an electron backscattering pattern (EBSP) with crystallographic information from a single point. It is also possible to utilize the EBSP detector and computer-control system to give an image from an area on the specimen--for example, to show the orientations of the grains in a polycrystalline sample ("grain orientation imaging"). Some further possibilities based on some other ways for analyzing the output from an EBSP detector array, are described.

Off-axis electron holography with a dual-lens imaging system and its usefulness in 2-D potential mapping of semiconductor devices.

A variable magnification electron holography, applicable for two-dimensional (2-D) potential mapping of semiconductor devices, employing a dual-lens imaging system is described. Imaging operation consists of a virtual image formed by the objective lens (OL) and a real image formed in a fixed imaging plane by the objective minilens. Wide variations in field of view (100-900 nm) and fringe spacing (0.7-6 nm) were obtained using a fixed biprism voltage by varying the total magnification of the dual OL system. The dual-lens system allows fringe width and spacing relative to the object to be varied roughly independently from the fringe contrast, resulting in enhanced resolution and sensitivity. The achievable fringe width and spacing cover the targets needed for devices in the semiconductor technology road map from the 350 to 45 nm node. Two-D potential maps for CMOS devices with 220 and 70 nm gate lengths were obtained.

Variable magnification dual lens electron holography for semiconductor junction profiling and strain mapping.

Dual lens operation for electron holography, which was developed previously (Wang et al., Ultramicroscopy 101 (2004) 63-72; US patent: 7,015,469 B2 (2006)), is re-investigated for bright field (junction profiling) and dark field (strain mapping) electron holography using FEI instrumentation (i.e. F20 and Titan). It is found that dual lens operation provides a wide operational range for electron holography. In addition, the dark field image tilt increases at high objective lens current to include Si <004> diffraction spot. Under the condition of high spatial resolution (1 nm fringe spacing), a large field of view (450 nm), and high fringe contrast (26%) with dual lens operation, a junction map is obtained and strain maps of Si device on <220> and <004> diffraction are acquired. In this paper, a fringe quality number, N', which is number of fringe times fringe contrast, is proposed to estimate the quality of an electron hologram and mathematical reasoning for the N' number is provided.

Formation of compositionally abrupt axial heterojunctions in silicon-germanium nanowires.

We have formed compositionally abrupt interfaces in silicon-germanium (Si-Ge) and Si-SiGe heterostructure nanowires by using solid aluminum-gold alloy catalyst particles rather than the conventional liquid semiconductor-metal eutectic droplets. We demonstrated single interfaces that are defect-free and close to atomically abrupt, as well as quantum dots (i.e., Ge layers tens of atomic planes thick) embedded within Si wires. Real-time imaging of growth kinetics reveals that a low solubility of Si and Ge in the solid particle accounts for the interfacial abruptness. Solid catalysts that can form functional group IV nanowire-based structures may yield an extended range of electronic applications.

Electron energy-loss near-edge structure -- a tool for the investigation of electronic structure on the nanometre scale.

Electron energy-loss near-edge structure (ELNES) is a technique that can be used to measure the electronic structure (i.e. bonding) in materials with subnanometre spatial resolution. This review covers the theoretical principles behind the technique, the experimental procedures necessary to acquire good ELNES spectra, including potential artefacts, and gives examples relevant to materials science.