Female Gene Networks Are Expressed in Myofibroblast-Like Smooth Muscle Cells in Vulnerable Atherosclerotic Plaques.

BACKGROUND: Women presenting with coronary artery disease more often present with fibrous atherosclerotic plaques, which are currently understudied. Phenotypically modulated smooth muscle cells (SMCs) contribute to atherosclerosis in women. How these phenotypically modulated SMCs shape female versus male plaques is unknown. METHODS: Gene regulatory networks were created using RNAseq gene expression data from human carotid atherosclerotic plaques. The networks were prioritized based on sex bias, relevance for smooth muscle biology, and coronary artery disease genetic enrichment. Network expression was linked to histologically determined plaque phenotypes. In addition, their expression in plaque cell types was studied at single-cell resolution using single-cell RNAseq. Finally, their relevance for disease progression was studied in female and male Apoe-/- mice fed a Western diet for 18 and 30 weeks. RESULTS: Here, we identify multiple sex-stratified gene regulatory networks from human carotid atherosclerotic plaques. Prioritization of the female networks identified 2 main SMC gene regulatory networks in late-stage atherosclerosis. Single-cell RNA sequencing mapped these female networks to 2 SMC phenotypes: a phenotypically modulated myofibroblast-like SMC network and a contractile SMC network. The myofibroblast-like network was mostly expressed in plaques that were vulnerable in women. Finally, the mice ortholog of key driver gene MFGE8 (milk fat globule EGF and factor V/VIII domain containing) showed retained expression in advanced plaques from female mice but was downregulated in male mice during atherosclerosis progression. CONCLUSIONS: Female atherosclerosis is characterized by gene regulatory networks that are active in fibrous vulnerable plaques rich in myofibroblast-like SMCs.

Recellularized Native Kidney Scaffolds as a Novel Tool in Nephrotoxicity Screening.

Drug-induced kidney injury in medicinal compound development accounts for over 20% of clinical trial failures and involves damage to different nephron segments, mostly the proximal tubule. Yet, currently applied cell models fail to reliably predict nephrotoxicity; neither are such models easy to establish. Here, we developed a novel three-dimensional (3D) nephrotoxicity platform on the basis of decellularized rat kidney scaffolds (DS) recellularized with conditionally immortalized human renal proximal tubule epithelial cells overexpressing the organic anion transporter 1 (ciPTEC-OAT1). A 5-day SDS-based decellularization protocol was used to generate DS, of which 100-µm slices were cut and used for cell seeding. After 8 days of culturing, recellularized scaffolds (RS) demonstrated 3D-tubule formation along with tubular epithelial characteristics, including drug transporter function. Exposure of RS to cisplatin (CDDP), tenofovir (TFV), or cyclosporin A (CsA) as prototypical nephrotoxic drugs revealed concentration-dependent reduction in cell viability, as assessed by PrestoBlue and Live/Dead staining assays. This was most probably attributable to specific uptake of CDDP by the organic cation transporter 2 (OCT2), TFV through organic anion transporter 1 (OAT1), and CsA competing for P-glycoprotein-mediated efflux. Compared with 2D cultures, RS showed an increased sensitivity to cisplatin and tenofovir toxicity after 24-hour exposure (9 and 2.2 fold, respectively). In conclusion, we developed a physiologically relevant 3D nephrotoxicity screening platform that could be a novel tool in drug development.

Vitamin C facilitates direct cardiac reprogramming by inhibiting reactive oxygen species.

BACKGROUND: After myocardial infarction, the lost myocardium is replaced by fibrotic tissue, eventually progressively leading to myocardial dysfunction. Direct reprogramming of fibroblasts into cardiomyocytes via the forced overexpression of cardiac transcription factors Gata4, Mef2c, and Tbx5 (GMT) offers a promising strategy for cardiac repair. The limited reprogramming efficiency of this approach, however, remains a significant challenge. METHODS: We screened seven factors capable of improving direct cardiac reprogramming of both mice and human fibroblasts by evaluating small molecules known to be involved in cardiomyocyte differentiation or promoting human-induced pluripotent stem cell reprogramming. RESULTS: We found that vitamin C (VitC) significantly increased cardiac reprogramming efficiency when added to GMT-overexpressing fibroblasts from human and mice in 2D and 3D model. We observed a significant increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in human and mice fibroblasts upon Doxy induction, and ROS generation was subsequently reduced upon VitC treatment, associated with increased reprogramming efficiency. However, upon treatment with dehydroascorbic acid, a structural analog of VitC but lacking antioxidant properties, no difference in reprogramming efficiency was observed, suggesting that the effect of VitC in enhancing cardiac reprogramming is partly dependent of its antioxidant properties. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate that VitC supplementation significantly enhances the efficiency of cardiac reprogramming, partially by suppressing ROS production in the presence of GMT.

X chromosome inactivation skewing is common in advanced carotid atherosclerotic lesions in females and predicts secondary peripheral artery events.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Sex differences in atherosclerosis have been described with female plaques being mostly perceived as stable and fibrous. Sex-specific mechanisms such as mosaic loss of the Y chromosome in men have been linked to cardiovascular health. In women, X-linked mechanisms such as X chromosome inactivation (XCI) skewing is common in several tissues. Yet, information on the role of XCI in female atherosclerotic plaques is lacking. Here, we investigated the presence of XCI skewing in advanced atherosclerotic lesions and its association with cardiovascular risk factors, histological plaque data, and clinical data. METHODS: XCI skewing was quantified in 154 atherosclerotic plaque and 55 blood DNA samples of women included in the Athero-Express study. The skewing status was determined performing the HUMARA assay. Then, we studied the relationship of XCI skewing in female plaque and cardiovascular risk factors using regression models. In addition, we studied if plaque XCI predicted plaque composition, and adverse events during 3-years follow-up using Cox proportional hazard models. RESULTS: XCI skewing was detected in 76 of 154 (49.4%) plaques and in 27 of 55 (67%) blood samples. None of the clinical risk factors were associated with plaque skewing. Plaque skewing was more often detected in plaques with a plaque hemorrhage (OR [95% CI]: 1.44 [1.06-1.98], P = 0.02). Moreover, skewed plaques were not associated with a higher incidence of composite and major events but were specifically associated with peripheral artery events during a 3-year follow-up period in a multivariate model (HR [95%CI]: 1.46 [1.09-1.97]; P = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS: XCI skewing is common in carotid plaques of females and is predictive for the occurrence of peripheral artery events within 3 years after carotid endarterectomy.

Sex-differences have been observed in the development of atherosclerosis between men and women. Women tend to have more stable and fibrous plaques compared to men. Sex-specific mechanisms such as mosaic loss of the Y chromosome in men, were associated with cardiovascular health. In women, despite X-linked mechanisms like X chromosome inactivation (XCI) skewing was identified in various tissues. However, its relationship with atherosclerosis has not yet been investigated. In our study, we explored if prevalence of XCI skewing in advanced atherosclerotic lesions related to cardiovascular risk factors, histological plaque data, and clinical information. We found that XCI skewing was present in approximately 50% of human plaques, particularly those with plaque hemorrhage. Interestingly, we did not find any notable relationship between plaque skewing and clinical risk factors. However, we found that XCI was more present in women with peripheral artery events during the 3 years period following carotid endarterectomy. In summary, our findings indicate that XCI skewing is commonly observed in carotid plaques among females and may serve as a predictive factor for the occurrence of peripheral artery events within 3 years after carotid endarterectomy.

Human Plaque Myofibroblasts to Study Mechanisms of Atherosclerosis.

Background Plaque myofibroblasts are critical players in the initiation and advancement of atherosclerotic disease. They are involved in the production of extracellular matrix, the formation of the fibrous cap, and the underlying lipidic core via modulation processes in response to different environmental cues. Despite clear phenotypic differences between myofibroblast cells and healthy vascular smooth muscle cells, smooth muscle cells are still widely used as a cellular model in atherosclerotic research. Methods and Results Here, we present a conditioned outgrowth method to isolate and culture myofibroblast cells from plaques. We obtained these cells from 27 donors (24 carotid and 3 femoral endarterectomies). We show that they keep their proliferative capacity for 8 passages, are transcriptionally stable, retain donor-specific gene expression programs, and express extracellular matrix proteins (FN1, COL1A1, and DCN) and smooth muscle cell markers (ACTA2, MYH11, and CNN1). Single-cell transcriptomics reveals that the cells in culture closely resemble the plaque myofibroblasts. Chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing shows the presence of histone H3 lysine 4 dimethylation at the MYH11 promoter, pointing to their smooth muscle cell origin. Finally, we demonstrated that plaque myofibroblasts can be efficiently transduced (>97%) and are capable of taking up oxidized low-density lipoprotein and undergoing calcification. Conclusions In conclusion, we present a method to isolate and culture cells that retain plaque myofibroblast phenotypical and functional capabilities, making them a suitable in vitro model for studying selected mechanisms of atherosclerosis.

Female gene networks are expressed in myofibroblast-like smooth muscle cells in vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques.

Women presenting with coronary artery disease (CAD) more often present with fibrous atherosclerotic plaques, which are currently understudied. Phenotypically modulated smooth muscle cells (SMCs) contribute to atherosclerosis in women. How these phenotypically modulated SMCs shape female versus male plaques is unknown. Here, we show sex-stratified gene regulatory networks (GRNs) from human carotid atherosclerotic tissue. Prioritization of these networks identified two main SMC GRNs in late-stage atherosclerosis. Single-cell RNA-sequencing mapped these GRNs to two SMC phenotypes: a phenotypically modulated myofibroblast-like SMC network and a contractile SMC network. The myofibroblast-like GRN was mostly expressed in plaques that were vulnerable in females. Finally, mice orthologs of the female myofibroblast-like genes showed retained expression in advanced plaques from female mice but were downregulated in male mice during atherosclerosis progression. Female atherosclerosis is driven by GRNs that promote a fibrous vulnerable plaque rich in myofibroblast-like SMCs.

The changing landscape of the vulnerable plaque: a call for fine-tuning of preclinical models.

For decades, the pathological definition of the vulnerable plaque led to invaluable insights into the mechanisms that underlie myocardial infarction and stroke. Beyond plaque rupture, other mechanisms, such as erosion, may elicit thrombotic events underlining the complexity and diversity of the atherosclerotic disease. Novel insights, based on single-cell transcriptomics and other "omics" methods, provide tremendous opportunities in the ongoing search for cell-specific determinants that will fine-tune the description of the thrombosis prone lesion. It coincides with an increasing awareness that knowledge on lesion characteristics, cell plasticity and clinical presentation of ischemic cardiovascular events have shifted over the past decades. This shift correlates with an observed changes of cell composition towards phenotypical stabilizing of human plaques. These stabilization features and mechanisms are directly mediated by the cells present in plaques and can be mimicked in vitro via primary plaque cells derived from human atherosclerotic tissues. In addition, the rapidly evolving of sequencing technologies identify many candidate genes and molecular mechanisms that may influence the risk of developing an atherosclerotic thrombotic event - which bring the next challenge in sharp focus: how to translate these cell-specific insights into tangible functional and translational discoveries?

Human Cardiac Organoids for Modeling Genetic Cardiomyopathy.

Genetic cardiomyopathies are characterized by changes in the function and structure of the myocardium. The development of a novel in vitro model could help to better emulate healthy and diseased human heart conditions and may improve the understanding of disease mechanisms. In this study, for the first time, we demonstrated the generation of cardiac organoids using a triculture approach of human induced pluripotent stem-cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPS-CMs)-from healthy subjects and cardiomyopathy patients-human cardiac microvascular endothelial cells (HCMECs) and human cardiac fibroblasts (HCFs). We assessed the organoids' suitability as a 3D cellular model for the representation of phenotypical features of healthy and cardiomyopathic hearts. We observed clear differences in structure and beating behavior between the organoid groups, depending on the type of hiPS-CMs (healthy versus cardiomyopathic) used. Organoids may thus prove a promising tool for the design and testing of patient-specific treatments as well as provide a platform for safer and more efficacious drug development.

Human Cardiac Organoids for Disease Modeling.

Human cardiac drug discovery and disease modeling face challenges in recapitulating cellular complexity and animal-to-human translation due to the limitations of conventional 2D cell culture and animal models. The development of human cardiac organoid technologies could help in stimulating and maintaining differentiated cell functions for extended periods of time. By closely mimicking in vivo organ functions in vitro they could thereby help in overcoming the obstacles mentioned above. Through the construction of human cardiac organoids from pluripotent stem cell-derived cells, derived from patients with specific known genotypes and phenotypes, more complex and robust in vitro tools have recently become available for disease modeling. In this review, we will describe the relevance and importance of evolving organoid platforms in disease biology. We further provide examples of cardiac organoid platforms, which may lead the way toward future personalized medicine and drug discovery.