Arginase: A Multifaceted Enzyme Important in Health and Disease.

The arginase enzyme developed in early life forms and was maintained during evolution. As the last step in the urea cycle, arginase cleaves l-arginine to form urea and l-ornithine. The urea cycle provides protection against excess ammonia, while l-ornithine is needed for cell proliferation, collagen formation, and other physiological functions. In mammals, increases in arginase activity have been linked to dysfunction and pathologies of the cardiovascular system, kidney, and central nervous system and also to dysfunction of the immune system and cancer. Two important aspects of the excessive activity of arginase may be involved in diseases. First, overly active arginase can reduce the supply of l-arginine needed for the production of nitric oxide (NO) by NO synthase. Second, too much l-ornithine can lead to structural problems in the vasculature, neuronal toxicity, and abnormal growth of tumor cells. Seminal studies have demonstrated that increased formation of reactive oxygen species and key inflammatory mediators promote this pathological elevation of arginase activity. Here, we review the involvement of arginase in diseases affecting the cardiovascular, renal, and central nervous system and cancer and discuss the value of therapies targeting the elevated activity of arginase.

Protein disulfide isomerase A1 as a novel redox sensor in VEGFR2 signaling and angiogenesis.

VEGFR2 signaling in endothelial cells (ECs) is regulated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) derived from NADPH oxidases (NOXs) and mitochondria, which plays an important role in postnatal angiogenesis. However, it remains unclear how highly diffusible ROS signal enhances VEGFR2 signaling and reparative angiogenesis. Protein disulfide isomerase A1 (PDIA1) functions as an oxidoreductase depending on the redox environment. We hypothesized that PDIA1 functions as a redox sensor to enhance angiogenesis. Here we showed that PDIA1 co-immunoprecipitated with VEGFR2 or colocalized with either VEGFR2 or an early endosome marker Rab5 at the perinuclear region upon stimulation of human ECs with VEGF. PDIA1 silencing significantly reduced VEGF-induced EC migration, proliferation and spheroid sprouting via inhibiting VEGFR2 signaling. Mechanistically, VEGF stimulation rapidly increased Cys-OH formation of PDIA1 via the NOX4-mitochondrial ROS axis. Overexpression of "redox-dead" mutant PDIA1 with replacement of the active four Cys residues with Ser significantly inhibited VEGF-induced PDIA1-CysOH formation and angiogenic responses via reducing VEGFR2 phosphorylation. Pdia1+/- mice showed impaired angiogenesis in developmental retina and Matrigel plug models as well as ex vivo aortic ring sprouting model. Study using hindlimb ischemia model revealed that PDIA1 expression was markedly increased in angiogenic ECs of ischemic muscles, and that ischemia-induced limb perfusion recovery and neovascularization were impaired in EC-specific Pdia1 conditional knockout mice. These results suggest that PDIA1 can sense VEGF-induced H2O2 signal via CysOH formation to promote VEGFR2 signaling and angiogenesis in ECs, thereby enhancing postnatal angiogenesis. The oxidized PDIA1 is a potential therapeutic target for treatment of ischemic vascular diseases.

Role of acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol transferase 1 (ACAT1) in retinal neovascularization.

BACKGROUND: We have investigated the efficacy of a new strategy to limit pathological retinal neovascularization (RNV) during ischemic retinopathy by targeting the cholesterol metabolizing enzyme acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol transferase 1 (ACAT1). Dyslipidemia and cholesterol accumulation have been strongly implicated in promoting subretinal NV. However, little is known about the role of cholesterol metabolism in RNV. Here, we tested the effects of inhibiting ACAT1 on pathological RNV in the mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR). METHODS: In vivo studies used knockout mice that lack the receptor for LDL cholesterol (LDLR-/-) and wild-type mice. The wild-type mice were treated with a specific inhibitor of ACAT1, K604 (10 mg/kg, i.p) or vehicle (PBS) during OIR. In vitro studies used human microglia exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) and treated with the ACAT1 inhibitor (1 µM) or PBS. RESULTS: Analysis of OIR retinas showed that increased expression of inflammatory mediators and pathological RNV were associated with significant increases in expression of the LDLR, increased accumulation of neutral lipids, and formation of toxic levels of cholesterol ester (CE). Deletion of the LDLR completely blocked OIR-induced RNV and significantly reduced the AVA. The OIR-induced increase in CE formation was accompanied by significant increases in expression of ACAT1, VEGF and inflammatory factors (TREM1 and MCSF) (p < 0.05). ACAT1 was co-localized with TREM1, MCSF, and macrophage/microglia makers (F4/80 and Iba1) in areas of RNV. Treatment with K604 prevented retinal accumulation of neutral lipids and CE formation, inhibited RNV, and decreased the AVA as compared to controls (p < 0.05). The treatment also blocked upregulation of LDLR, ACAT1, TREM1, MCSF, and inflammatory cytokines but did not alter VEGF expression. K604 treatment of microglia cells also blocked the effects of OGD in increasing expression of ACAT1, TREM1, and MCSF without altering VEGF expression. CONCLUSIONS: OIR-induced RNV is closely associated with increases in lipid accumulation and CE formation along with increased expression of LDLR, ACAT1, TREM1, and MCSF. Inhibiting ACAT1 blocked these effects and limited RNV independently of alterations in VEGF expression. This pathway offers a novel strategy to limit vascular injury during ischemic retinopathy.

Role of Arginase 2 in Systemic Metabolic Activity and Adipose Tissue Fatty Acid Metabolism in Diet-Induced Obese Mice.

Visceral adipose tissue (VAT) inflammation and metabolic dysregulation are key components of obesity-induced metabolic disease. Upregulated arginase, a ureahydrolase enzyme with two isoforms (A1-cytosolic and A2-mitochondrial), is implicated in pathologies associated with obesity and diabetes. This study examined A2 involvement in obesity-associated metabolic and vascular disorders. WT and globally deleted A2(-/-) or A1(+/-) mice were fed either a high fat/high sucrose (HFHS) diet or normal diet (ND) for 16 weeks. Increases in body and VAT weight of HFHS-fed WT mice were abrogated in A2-/-, but not A1+/-, mice. Additionally, A2-/- HFHS-fed mice exhibited higher energy expenditure, lower blood glucose, and insulin levels compared to WT HFHS mice. VAT and adipocytes from WT HFHS fed mice showed greater A2 expression and adipocyte size and reduced expression of PGC-1α, PPAR-γ, and adiponectin. A2 deletion blunted these effects, increased levels of active AMPK-α, and upregulated genes involved in fatty acid metabolism. A2 deletion prevented HFHS-induced VAT collagen deposition and inflammation, which are involved in adipocyte metabolic dysfunction. Endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation, impaired by HFHS diet, was significantly preserved in A2-/- mice, but more prominently maintained in A1+/- mice. In summary, A2 is critically involved in HFHS-induced VAT inflammation and metabolic dysfunction.

Blockade of TREM-1 prevents vitreoretinal neovascularization in mice with oxygen-induced retinopathy.

In pathological retinal neovascularization (RNV) disorders, the retina is infiltrated by activated leukocytes and macrophages. Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM-1), an inflammation amplifier, activates monocytes and macrophages and plays an important role in cancer, autoimmune and other inflammation-associated disorders. Hypoxia-inducible TREM-1 is involved in cancer angiogenesis but its role in RNV remains unclear. Here, to close this gap, we evaluated the role of TREM-1 in RNV using a mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR). We found that hypoxia induced overexpression of TREM-1 in the OIR retinas compared to that of the room air group. TREM-1 was observed specifically in areas of pathological RNV, largely colocalizing with macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and CD45- and Iba-1-positive cells. TREM-1 blockade using systemically administered first-in-class ligand-independent TREM-1 inhibitory peptides rationally designed using the signaling chain homooligomerization (SCHOOL) strategy significantly (up to 95%) reduced vitreoretinal neovascularization. The peptides were well-tolerated when formulated into lipopeptide complexes for peptide half-life extension and targeted delivery. TREM-1 inhibition substantially downregulated retinal protein levels of TREM-1 and M-CSF suggesting that TREM-1-dependent suppression of pathological angiogenesis involves M-CSF. Targeting TREM-1 using TREM-1-specific SCHOOL peptide inhibitors represents a novel strategy to treat retinal diseases that are accompanied by neovascularization including retinopathy of prematurity.

Mechanisms of Diabetes-Induced Endothelial Cell Senescence: Role of Arginase 1.

We have recently found that diabetes-induced premature senescence of retinal endothelial cells is accompanied by NOX2-NADPH oxidase-induced increases in the ureohydrolase enzyme arginase 1 (A1). Here, we used genetic strategies to determine the specific involvement of A1 in diabetes-induced endothelial cell senescence. We used A1 knockout mice and wild type mice that were rendered diabetic with streptozotocin and retinal endothelial cells (ECs) exposed to high glucose or transduced with adenovirus to overexpress A1 for these experiments. ABH [2(S)-Amino-6-boronohexanoic acid] was used to inhibit arginase activity. We used Western blotting, immunolabeling, quantitative PCR, and senescence associated β-galactosidase (SA β-Gal) activity to evaluate senescence. Analyses of retinal tissue extracts from diabetic mice showed significant increases in mRNA expression of the senescence-related proteins p16INK4a, p21, and p53 when compared with non-diabetic mice. SA β-Gal activity and p16INK4a immunoreactivity were also increased in retinal vessels from diabetic mice. A1 gene deletion or pharmacological inhibition protected against the induction of premature senescence. A1 overexpression or high glucose treatment increased SA β-Gal activity in cultured ECs. These results demonstrate that A1 is critically involved in diabetes-induced senescence of retinal ECs. Inhibition of arginase activity may therefore be an effective therapeutic strategy to alleviate diabetic retinopathy by preventing premature senescence.

Obesity-induced vascular inflammation involves elevated arginase activity.

Obesity-induced vascular dysfunction involves pathological remodeling of the visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and increased inflammation. Our previous studies showed that arginase 1 (A1) in endothelial cells (ECs) is critically involved in obesity-induced vascular dysfunction. We tested the hypothesis that EC-A1 activity also drives obesity-related VAT remodeling and inflammation. Our studies utilized wild-type and EC-A1 knockout (KO) mice made obese by high-fat/high-sucrose (HFHS) diet. HFHS diet induced increases in body weight, fasting blood glucose, and VAT expansion. This was accompanied by increased arginase activity and A1 expression in vascular ECs and increased expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), interleukin-10 (IL-10), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) mRNA and protein in both VAT and ECs. HFHS also markedly increased circulating inflammatory monocytes and VAT infiltration by inflammatory macrophages, while reducing reparative macrophages. Additionally, adipocyte size and fibrosis increased and capillary density decreased in VAT. These effects of HFHS, except for weight gain and hyperglycemia, were prevented or reduced in mice lacking EC-A1 or treated with the arginase inhibitor 2-(S)-amino-6-boronohexanoic acid (ABH). In mouse aortic ECs, exposure to high glucose (25 mM) and Na palmitate (200 µM) reduced nitric oxide production and increased A1, TNF-α, VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and MCP-1 mRNA, and monocyte adhesion. Knockout of EC-A1 or ABH prevented these effects. HFHS diet-induced VAT inflammation is mediated by EC-A1 expression/activity. Limiting arginase activity is a possible therapeutic means of controlling obesity-induced vascular and VAT inflammation.

Activation of the endothelin system mediates pathological angiogenesis during ischemic retinopathy.

Retinopathy of prematurity adversely affects premature infants because of oxygen-induced damage of the immature retinal vasculature, resulting in pathological neovascularization (NV). Our pilot studies using the mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) showed marked increases in angiogenic mediators, including endothelins and endothelin receptor (EDNR) A. We hypothesized that activation of the endothelin system via EDNRA plays a causal role in pathological angiogenesis and up-regulation of angiogenic mediators, including vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) in OIR. Mice were exposed to 75% oxygen from post-natal day P7 to P12, treated with either vehicle or EDNRA antagonist BQ-123 or EDNRB antagonist BQ-788 on P12, and kept at room air from P12 to P17 (ischemic phase). RT-PCR analysis revealed increased levels of EDN2 and EDNRA mRNA, and Western blot analysis revealed increased EDN2 expression during the ischemic phase. EDNRA inhibition significantly increased vessel sprouting, resulting in enhanced physiological angiogenesis and decreased pathological NV, whereas EDNRB inhibition modestly improved vascular repair. OIR triggered significant increases in VEGFA protein and mRNA for delta-like ligand 4, apelin, angiopoietin-2, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1. BQ-123 treatment significantly reduced these alterations. EDN2 expression was localized to retinal glia and pathological NV tufts of the OIR retinas. EDN2 also induced VEGFA protein expression in cultured astrocytes. In conclusion, inhibition of the EDNRA during OIR suppresses pathological NV and promotes physiological angiogenesis.

Arginase inhibition enhances angiogenesis in endothelial cells exposed to hypoxia.

Hypoxia-induced arginase elevation plays an essential role in several vascular diseases but influence of arginase on hypoxia-mediated angiogenesis is completely unknown. In this study, in vitro network formation in bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAEC) was examined after exposure to hypoxia for 24h with or without arginase inhibition. Arginase activity, protein levels of the two arginase isoforms, eNOS, and VEGF as well as production of NO and ROS were examined to determine the involvement of arginase in hypoxia-mediated angiogenesis. Hypoxia elevated arginase activity and arginase 2 expression but reduced active p-eNOS(Ser1177) and NO levels in BAEC. In addition, both VEGF protein levels and endothelial elongation and network formation were reduced with continued hypoxia, whereas ROS levels increased and NO levels decreased. Arginase inhibition limited ROS, restored NO formation and VEGF expression, and prevented the reduction of angiogenesis. These results suggest a fundamental role of arginase activity in regulating angiogenic function.

Endothelial PFKFB3 plays a critical role in angiogenesis.

OBJECTIVE: Vascular cells, particularly endothelial cells, adopt aerobic glycolysis to generate energy to support cellular functions. The effect of endothelial glycolysis on angiogenesis remains unclear. 6-Phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2, 6-bisphosphatase, isoform 3 (PFKFB3) is a critical enzyme for endothelial glycolysis. By blocking or deleting PFKFB3 in endothelial cells, we investigated the influence of endothelial glycolysis on angiogenesis both in vitro and in vivo. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Under hypoxic conditions or after treatment with angiogenic factors, endothelial PFKFB3 was upregulated both in vitro and in vivo. The knockdown or overexpression of PFKFB3 suppressed or accelerated endothelial proliferation and migration in vitro, respectively. Neonatal mice from a model of oxygen-induced retinopathy showed suppressed neovascular growth in the retina when endothelial PFKFB3 was genetically deleted or when the mice were treated with a PFKFB3 inhibitor. In addition, tumors implanted in mice deficient in endothelial PFKFB3 grew more slowly and were provided with less blood flow. A lower level of phosphorylated protein kinase B was observed in PFKFB3-knockdown endothelial cells, which was accompanied by a decrease in intracellular lactate. The addition of lactate to PFKFB3-knockdown cells rescued the suppression of endothelial proliferation and migration. CONCLUSIONS: The blockade or deletion of endothelial PFKFB3 decreases angiogenesis both in vitro and in vivo. Thus, PFKFB3 is a promising target for the reduction of endothelial glycolysis and its related pathological angiogenesis.

Elevated Serum Levels of Soluble TNF Receptors and Adhesion Molecules Are Associated with Diabetic Retinopathy in Patients with Type-1 Diabetes.

AIMS: To examine the association of the serum levels of TNF receptors, adhesion molecules, and inflammatory mediators with diabetic retinopathy (DR) in T1D patients. METHODS: Using the multiplex immunoassay, we measured serum levels of eight proteins in 678 T1D subjects aged 20-75 years. Comparisons were made between 482 T1D patients with no complications and 196 T1D patients with DR. RESULTS: The levels of sTNFR-I, sTNFR-II, CRP, SAA, sgp130, sIL6R, sVCAM1, and sICAM1 were significantly higher in the T1D patients with DR as compared to T1D patients with no complications. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed significant association for five proteins after adjustment for age, sex, and disease duration (sTNFR-I: OR = 1.57, sgp130: OR = 1.43, sVCAM1: OR = 1.27, sICAM1: OR = 1.42, and CRP: OR = 1.15). Conditional logistic regression on matched paired data revealed that subjects in the top quartile for sTNFR-I (OR = 2.13), sTNFR-II (OR = 1.66), sgp130 (OR = 1.82), sIL6R (OR = 1.75), sVCAM1 (OR = 1.98), sICAM1 (OR = 2.23), CRP (OR = 2.40) and SAA (OR = 2.03), had the highest odds of having DR. CONCLUSIONS: The circulating markers of inflammation, endothelial injury, and TNF signaling are significantly associated with DR in patients with T1D. TNFR-I and TNFR-II receptors are highly correlated, but DR associated more strongly with TNFR-I in these patients.

Anti-angiogenic actions of the mangosteen polyphenolic xanthone derivative α-mangostin.

Retinal neovascularization is a major cause of vision loss in diseases characterized by retinal ischemia and is characterized by the pathological growth of abnormal vessels. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is known to play an important role in this process. Oxidative stress has been strongly implicated in up-regulation of VEGF associated with neovascularization in various tissues. Hence, compounds with anti-oxidant actions can prevent neovascularization. α-Mangostin, a component of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana Linn), has been shown to have an anti-oxidant property in pathological conditions involving angiogenesis such as cancer. However, the effect of α-mangostin on ROS formation and angiogenic function in microvascular endothelial cells has not been studied. Hence, this study demonstrated the anti-angiogenic effects of α-mangostin in relation to ROS formation in bovine retinal endothelial cells (REC). α-Mangostin significantly and dose-dependently reduced formation of ROS in hypoxia-treated REC. α-Mangostin also significantly and dose-dependently suppressed VEGF-induced increases in permeability, proliferation, migration and tube formation in REC and blocked angiogenic sprouting in the ex vivo aortic ring assay. In addition, α-mangostin inhibited VEGF-induced phosphorylation of VEGFR2 and ERK1/2-MAPK. According to our results, α-mangostin reduces oxidative stress and limits VEGF-induced angiogenesis through a process involving abrogation of VEGFR2 and ERK1/2-MAPK activation.

Inactivation of adenosine receptor 2A suppresses endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition and inhibits subretinal fibrosis in mice.

Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor therapy has had a substantial impact on the treatment of choroidal neovascularization (CNV) in patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD), the leading cause of vision loss in older adults. Despite treatment, many patients with nAMD still develop severe and irreversible visual impairment because of the development of subretinal fibrosis. We recently reported the anti-inflammatory and antiangiogenic effects of inhibiting the gene encoding adenosine receptor 2A (Adora2a), which has been implicated in cardiovascular disease. Here, using two mouse models of subretinal fibrosis (mice with laser injury-induced CNV or mice with a deficiency in the very low-density lipoprotein receptor), we found that deletion of Adora2a either globally or specifically in endothelial cells reduced subretinal fibrosis independently of angiogenesis. We showed that Adora2a-dependent endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition contributed to the development of subretinal fibrosis in mice with laser injury-induced CNV. Deficiency of Adora2a in cultured mouse and human choroidal endothelial cells suppressed induction of the endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition. A metabolomics analysis of cultured human choroidal endothelial cells showed that ADORA2A knockdown with an siRNA reversed the increase in succinate because of decreased succinate dehydrogenase B expression under fibrotic conditions. Pharmacological inhibition of ADORA2A with a small-molecule KW6002 in both mouse models recapitulated the reduction in subretinal fibrosis observed in mice with genetic deletion of Adora2a. ADORA2A inhibition may be a therapeutic approach to treat subretinal fibrosis associated with nAMD.

Endothelial Drp1 Couples VEGF-induced Redox Signaling with Glycolysis Through Cysteine Oxidation to Drive Angiogenesis.

Angiogenesis plays a vital role for postnatal development and tissue repair following ischemia. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by NADPH oxidases (NOXes) and mitochondria act as signaling molecules that promote angiogenesis in endothelial cells (ECs) which mainly relies on aerobic glycolysis for ATP production. However, the connections linking redox signaling with glycolysis are not well understood. The GTPase Drp1 is a member of the dynamin superfamily that moves from cytosol to mitochondria through posttranslational modifications to induce mitochondrial fission. The role of Drp1 in ROS-dependent VEGF signaling and angiogenesis in ECs has not been previously described. Here, we identify an unexpected function of endothelial Drp1 as a redox sensor, transmitting VEGF-induced H 2 O 2 signals to enhance glycolysis and angiogenesis. Loss of Drp1 expression in ECs inhibited VEGF-induced angiogenic responses. Mechanistically, VEGF rapidly induced the NOX4-dependent sulfenylation (CysOH) of Drp1 on Cys 644 , promoting disulfide bond formation with the metabolic kinase AMPK and subsequent sulfenylation of AMPK at Cys 299 / 304 via the mitochondrial fission-mitoROS axis. This cysteine oxidation of AMPK, in turn, enhanced glycolysis and angiogenesis. In vivo , mice with EC-specific Drp1 deficiency or CRISPR/Cas9-engineered "redox-dead" (Cys to Ala) Drp1 knock-in mutations exhibited impaired retinal angiogenesis and post-ischemic neovascularization. Our findings uncover a novel role for endothelial Drp1 in linking VEGF-induced mitochondrial redox signaling to glycolysis through a cysteine oxidation-mediated Drp1-AMPK redox relay, driving both developmental and reparative angiogenesis.

Insights into the arginine paradox: evidence against the importance of subcellular location of arginase and eNOS.

Reduced production of nitric oxide (NO) is one of the first indications of endothelial dysfunction and precedes overt cardiovascular disease. Increased expression of Arginase has been proposed as a mechanism to account for diminished NO production. Arginases consume l-arginine, the substrate for endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), and l-arginine depletion is thought to competitively reduce eNOS-derived NO. However, this simple relationship is complicated by the paradox that l-arginine concentrations in endothelial cells remain sufficiently high to support NO synthesis. One mechanism proposed to explain this is compartmentalization of intracellular l-arginine into distinct, poorly interchangeable pools. In the current study, we investigated this concept by targeting eNOS and Arginase to different intracellular locations within COS-7 cells and also BAEC. We found that supplemental l-arginine and l-citrulline dose-dependently increased NO production in a manner independent of the intracellular location of eNOS. Cytosolic arginase I and mitochondrial arginase II reduced eNOS activity equally regardless of where in the cell eNOS was expressed. Similarly, targeting arginase I to disparate regions of the cell did not differentially modify eNOS activity. Arginase-dependent suppression of eNOS activity was reversed by pharmacological inhibitors and absent in a catalytically inactive mutant. Arginase did not directly interact with eNOS, and the metabolic products of arginase or downstream enzymes did not contribute to eNOS inhibition. Cells expressing arginase had significantly lower levels of intracellular l-arginine and higher levels of ornithine. These results suggest that arginases inhibit eNOS activity by depletion of substrate and that the compartmentalization of l-arginine does not play a major role.

Cytokine profiling of young overweight and obese female African American adults with prediabetes.

Approximately 5-10% of subjects with prediabetes become diabetic every year. Inflammation is involved in the development of obesity-related type 2 diabetes (T2D). However, to date, the relationship between inflammation and prediabetes, defined by hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) ≥5.7 and <6.5%, remains largely unexplored, especially in African Americans. Therefore, in this study we examined a comprehensive panel of 13 cytokines involved in the inflammatory response in overweight/obese subjects with prediabetes. A total of 21 otherwise healthy, overweight/obese, young adult African American females with prediabetes, together with 20 matched overweight/obese controls, were selected for this study. Plasma cytokines were assessed by multiplex cytokine profiling. Plasma concentrations of interleukin (IL)-5, IL-6, IL-7, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and granulocyte-monocyte colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) were significantly higher in the prediabetic group, as compared to the control group (all p<0.05). Plasma concentrations of all the other cytokines, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), IL-1ß, IL-2, IL-4, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70 and IL-13, seemed to be elevated in the prediabetic group, but failed to reach statistical significances. Upon merging both groups, HbA1c was found to be positively correlated with IFN-γ, IL-1ß, IL-2, IL-5, IL-7, IL-8, TNF-α and GM-CSF. This study demonstrates elevated levels of various pro-inflammatory cytokines in overweight/obese young subjects with prediabetes, which place them at higher risk of developing T2D and cardiovascular diseases. Our data also call for further investigations in animal models and population cohorts to establish the roles of a variety of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the early development of obesity-related T2D.

Activated Rho kinase mediates diabetes-induced elevation of vascular arginase activation and contributes to impaired corpora cavernosa relaxation: possible involvement of p38 MAPK activation.

INTRODUCTION: Activated RhoA/Rho kinase (ROCK) has been implicated in diabetes-induced erectile dysfunction. Earlier studies have demonstrated involvement of ROCK pathway in the activation of arginase in endothelial cells. However, signaling pathways activated by ROCK in the penis remain unclear. AIM: We tested whether ROCK and p38 MAPK are involved in the elevation of arginase activity and subsequent impairment of corpora cavernosal (CC) relaxation in diabetes. METHODS: Eight weeks after streptozotocin-induced diabetes, vascular functional studies, arginase activity assay, and protein expression of RhoA, ROCK, phospho-p38 MAPK, p38 MAPK, phospho-MYPT-1(Thr850), MYPT-1 and arginase levels were assessed in CC tissues from nondiabetic wild type (WT), diabetic (D) WT (WT + D), partial ROCK 2(+/-) knockout (KO), and ROCK 2(+/-) KO + D mice. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The expression of RhoA, ROCK 1 and 2, phosphorylation of MYPT-1(Thr850) and p38 MAPK, arginase activity/expression, endothelial- and nitrergic-dependent relaxation of CC was assayed. RESULTS: Diabetes significantly reduced maximum relaxation (Emax ) to both endothelium-dependent acetylcholine (WT + D: Emax; 61 ± 4% vs. WT: Emax; 75 ± 2%) and nitrergic nerve stimulation. These effects were associated with increased expression of active RhoA, ROCK 2, phospho-MYPT-1(Thr850), phospho-p38 MAPK, arginase II, and activity of corporal arginase (1.6-fold) in WT diabetic CC. However, this impairment in CC of WT + D mice was absent in heterozygous ROCK 2(+/-) KO + D mice for acetylcholine (Emax : 80 ± 5%) and attenuated for nitrergic nerve-induced relaxation. CC of ROCK 2(+/-) KO + D mice showed much less ROCK activity, did not exhibit p38 MAPK activation, and had reduced arginase activity and arginase II expression. These findings indicate that ROCK 2 mediates diabetes-induced elevation of arginase activity. Additionally, pretreatment of WT diabetic CC with inhibitors of arginase (ABH) or p38 MAPK (SB203580) partially prevented impairment of ACh- and nitrergic nerve-induced relaxation and elevation of arginase activity. CONCLUSION: ROCK 2, p38 MAPK and arginase play key roles in diabetes-induced impairment of CC relaxation.

Methylglyoxal-Modified Albumin Effects on Endothelial Arginase Enzyme and Vascular Function.

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) contribute significantly to vascular dysfunction (VD) in diabetes. Decreased nitric oxide (NO) is a hallmark in VD. In endothelial cells, NO is produced by endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) from L-arginine. Arginase competes with NOS for L-arginine to produce urea and ornithine, limiting NO production. Arginase upregulation was reported in hyperglycemia; however, AGEs' role in arginase regulation is unknown. Here, we investigated the effects of methylglyoxal-modified albumin (MGA) on arginase activity and protein expression in mouse aortic endothelial cells (MAEC) and on vascular function in mice aortas. Exposure of MAEC to MGA increased arginase activity, which was abrogated by MEK/ERK1/2 inhibitor, p38 MAPK inhibitor, and ABH (arginase inhibitor). Immunodetection of arginase revealed MGA-induced protein expression for arginase I. In aortic rings, MGA pretreatment impaired acetylcholine (ACh)-induced vasorelaxation, which was reversed by ABH. Intracellular NO detection by DAF-2DA revealed blunted ACh-induced NO production with MGA treatment that was reversed by ABH. In conclusion, AGEs increase arginase activity probably through the ERK1/2/p38 MAPK pathway due to increased arginase I expression. Furthermore, AGEs impair vascular function that can be reversed by arginase inhibition. Therefore, AGEs may be pivotal in arginase deleterious effects in diabetic VD, providing a novel therapeutic target.

Multi-color Flow Cytometry Protocol to Characterize Myeloid Cells in Mouse Retina Research.

Myeloid cells, specifically microglia and macrophages, are activated in retinal diseases and can improve or worsen retinopathy outcomes based on their inflammatory phenotype. However, assessing the myeloid cell response after retinal injury in mice remains challenging due to the small tissue size and the challenges of distinguishing microglia from infiltrating macrophages. In this protocol paper, we describe a flow cytometry-based protocol to assess retinal microglia/macrophage and their inflammatory phenotype after injury. The protocol is amenable to the incorporation of other markers of interest to other researchers. Key features This protocol describes a flow cytometry-based method to analyze the myeloid cell response in retinopathy mouse models. The protocol can distinguish between microglia- and monocyte-derived macrophages. It can be modified to incorporate markers of interest. We show representative results from three different retinopathy models, namely ischemia-reperfusion injury, endotoxin-induced uveitis, and oxygen-induced retinopathy.