Two firing modes and well-resolved Na+, K+, and Ca2+ currents at the cell-microelectrode junction of spontaneously active rat chromaffin cell on MEAs.

We recorded spontaneous extracellular action potentials (eAPs) from rat chromaffin cells (CCs) at 37 °C using microelectrode arrays (MEAs) and compared them with intracellularly recorded APs (iAPs) through conventional patch clamp recordings at 22 °C. We show the existence of two distinct firing modes on MEAs: a ~ 4 Hz irregular continuous firing and a frequent intermittent firing mode where periods of high-intraburst frequency (~ 8 Hz) of ~ 7 s duration are interrupted by silent periods of ~ 12 s. eAPs occurred either as negative- or positive-going signals depending on the contact between cell and microelectrode: either predominantly controlled by junction-membrane ion channels (negative-going) or capacitive/ohmic coupling (positive-going). Negative-going eAPs were found to represent the trajectory of the Na+, Ca2+, and K+ currents passing through the cell area in tight contact with the microelectrode during an AP (point-contact junction). The inward Nav component of eAPs was blocked by TTX in a dose-dependent manner (IC50 ~ 10 nM) while the outward component was strongly attenuated by the BK channel blocker paxilline (200 nM) or TEA (5 mM). The SK channel blocker apamin (200 nM) had no effect on eAPs. Inward Nav and Cav currents were well-resolved after block of Kv and BK channels or in cells showing no evident outward K+ currents. Unexpectedly, on the same type of cells, we could also resolve inward L-type currents after adding nifedipine (3 µM). In conclusion, MEAs provide a direct way to record different firing modes of rat CCs and to estimate the Na+, Ca2+, and K+ currents that sustain cell firing and spontaneous catecholamines secretion.

The ryanodine receptor-calstabin interaction stabilizer S107 protects hippocampal neurons from GABAergic synaptic alterations induced by Abeta42 oligomers.

The oligomeric form of the peptide amyloid beta 42 (Abeta42) contributes to the development of synaptic abnormalities and cognitive impairments associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). To date, there is a gap in knowledge regarding how Abeta42 alters the elementary parameters of GABAergic synaptic function. Here we found that Abeta42 increased the frequency and amplitude of miniature GABAergic currents as well as the amplitude of evoked inhibitory postsynaptic currents. When we focused on paired pulse depression (PPD) to establish whether GABA release probability was affected by Abeta42, we did not observe any significant change. On the other hand, a more detailed investigation of the presynaptic effects induced by Abeta42 by means of multiple probability fluctuation analysis and cumulative amplitude analysis showed an increase in both the size of the readily releasable pool responsible for synchronous release and the number of release sites. We further explored whether ryanodine receptors (RyRs) contributed to exacerbating these changes by stabilizing the interaction between RyRs and the accessory protein calstabin. We observed that the RyR-calstabin interaction stabilizer S107 restored the synaptic parameters to values comparable to those measured in control conditions. In conclusion, our results clarify the mechanisms of potentiation of GABAergic synapses induced by Abeta42. We further suggest that RyRs are involved in the control of synaptic activity during the early stage of AD onset and that their stabilization could represent a new therapeutical approach for AD treatment. KEY POINTS: Accumulation of the peptide amyloid beta 42 (Abeta42) is a key characteristic of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and causes synaptic dysfunctions. To date, the effects of Abeta42 accumulation on GABAergic synapses are poorly understood. The findings reported here suggest that, similarly to what is observed on glutamatergic synapses, Abeta42 modifies GABAergic synapses by targeting ryanodine receptors and causing calcium dysregulation. The GABAergic impairments can be restored by the ryanodine receptor-calstabin interaction stabilizer S107. Based on this research, RyRs stabilization may represent a novel pharmaceutical strategy for preventing or delaying AD.

Amyloid Beta42 oligomers up-regulate the excitatory synapses by potentiating presynaptic release while impairing postsynaptic NMDA receptors.

KEY POINTS: NMDA receptors (NMDARs) are key molecules for controlling neuronal plasticity, learning and memory processes. Their function is impaired during Alzheimer's disease (AD) but the exact consequence on synaptic function is not yet fully identified. An important hallmark of AD onset is represented by the neuronal accumulation of Amyloid Beta42 oligomers (Abeta42) that we have recently shown to be responsible for the increased intracellular Ca2+ concentration through ryanodine receptors (RyRs). Here we characterized the effects of Abeta42 on NMDA synapses showing specific pre- and post-synaptic functional changes that lead to a potentiation of basal and synchronous NMDA synaptic transmission. These overall effects can be abolished by decreasing Ca2+ release from RyRs with specific inhibitors that we propose as new pharmacological tools for AD treatment. ABSTRACT: We have recently shown that Amyloid Beta42 oligomers (Abeta42) cause calcium dysregulation in hippocampal neurons by stimulating Ca2+ release from ryanodine receptors (RyRs) and inhibiting Ca2+ entry through NMDA receptors (NMDARs). Here, we found that Abeta42 decrease the average NMDA-activated inward current and that Ca2+ entry through NMDARs is accompanied by Ca2+ release from the stores. The overall amount of intraellular Ca2+ concentration([Ca2+ ]i ) increase during NMDA application is 50% associated with RyR opening and 50% with NMDARs activation. Addition of Abeta42 does not change this proportion. We estimated the number of NMDARs expressed in hippocampal neurons and their unitary current. We found that Abeta42 decrease the number of NMDARs without altering their unitary current. Paradoxically, the oligomer increases the size of electrically evoked eEPSCs induced by NMDARs activation. We found that this is the consequence of the increased release probability (p) of glutamate and the number of release sites (N) of NMDA synapses, while the quantal size (q) is significantly decreased as expected from the decreased number of NMDARs. An increased number of release sites induced by Abeta42 is also supported by the increased size of the ready releasable pool (RRPsyn) and by the enhanced percentage of paired pulse depression (PPD). Interestingly, the RyRs inhibitor dantrolene prevents the increase of PPD induced by Abeta42 oligomers. In conclusion, Abeta42 up-regulates NMDA synaptic responses with a mechanism involving RyRs that occurs during the early stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD) onset. This suggests that new selective modulators of RyRs may be useful for designing effective therapies to treat AD patients.

Cav1.2 channelopathies causing autism: new hallmarks on Timothy syndrome.

Cav1.2 L-type calcium channels play key roles in long-term synaptic plasticity, sensory transduction, muscle contraction, and hormone release. De novo mutations in the gene encoding Cav1.2 (CACNA1C) causes two forms of Timothy syndrome (TS1, TS2), characterized by a multisystem disorder inclusive of cardiac arrhythmias, long QT, autism, and adrenal gland dysfunction. In both TS1 and TS2, the missense mutation G406R is on the alternatively spliced exon 8 and 8A coding for the IS6-helix of Cav1.2 and is responsible for the penetrant form of autism in most TS individuals. The mutation causes specific gain-of-function changes to Cav1.2 channel gating: a "leftward shift" of voltage-dependent activation, reduced voltage-dependent inactivation, and a "leftward shift" of steady-state inactivation. How this occurs and how Cav1.2 gating changes alter neuronal firing and synaptic plasticity is still largely unexplained. Trying to better understanding the molecular basis of Cav1.2 gating dysfunctions leading to autism, here, we will present and discuss the properties of recently reported typical and atypical TS phenotypes and the effective gating changes exhibited by missense mutations associated with long QTs without extracardiac symptoms, unrelated to TS. We will also discuss new emerging views achieved from using iPSCs-derived neurons and the newly available autistic TS2-neo mouse model, both appearing promising for understanding neuronal mistuning in autistic TS patients. We will also analyze and describe recent proposals of molecular pathways that might explain mistuned Ca2+-mediated and Ca2+-independent excitation-transcription signals to the nucleus. Briefly, we will also discuss possible pharmacological approaches to treat autism associated with L-type channelopathies.

p140Cap Regulates GABAergic Synaptogenesis and Development of Hippocampal Inhibitory Circuits.

The neuronal scaffold protein p140Cap was investigated during hippocampal network formation. p140Cap is present in presynaptic GABAergic terminals and its genetic depletion results in a marked alteration of inhibitory synaptic activity. p140Cap-/- cultured neurons display higher frequency of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) with no changes of their mean amplitude. Consistent with a potential presynaptic alteration of basal GABA release, p140Cap-/- neurons exhibit a larger synaptic vesicle readily releasable pool, without any variation of single GABAA receptor unitary currents and number of postsynaptic channels. Furthermore, p140Cap-/- neurons show a premature and enhanced network synchronization and appear more susceptible to 4-aminopyridine-induced seizures in vitro and to kainate-induced seizures in vivo. The hippocampus of p140Cap-/- mice showed a significant increase in the number of both inhibitory synapses and of parvalbumin- and somatostatin-expressing interneurons. Specific deletion of p140Cap in forebrain interneurons resulted in increased susceptibility to in vitro epileptic events and increased inhibitory synaptogenesis, comparable to those observed in p140Cap-/- mice. Altogether, our data demonstrate that p140Cap finely tunes inhibitory synaptogenesis and GABAergic neurotransmission, thus regulating the establishment and maintenance of the proper hippocampal excitatory/inhibitory balance.

Impaired chromaffin cell excitability and exocytosis in autistic Timothy syndrome TS2-neo mouse rescued by L-type calcium channel blockers.

KEY POINTS: Tymothy syndrome (TS) is a multisystem disorder featuring cardiac arrhythmias, autism and adrenal gland dysfunction that originates from a de novo point mutation in the gene encoding the Cav1.2 (CACNA1C) L-type channel. To study the role of Cav1.2 channel signals in autism, the autistic TS2-neo mouse has been generated bearing the G406R point-mutation associated with TS type-2. Using heterozygous TS2-neo mice, we report that the G406R mutation reduces the rate of inactivation and shifts leftward the activation and inactivation of L-type channels, causing marked increase of resting Ca2+ influx ('window' Ca2+ current). The increased 'window current' causes marked reduction of NaV channel density, switches normal tonic firing to abnormal burst firing, reduces mitochondrial metabolism, induces cell swelling and decreases catecholamine release. Overnight incubations with nifedipine rescue NaV channel density, normal firing and the quantity of catecholamine released. We provide evidence that chromaffin cell malfunction derives from altered Cav1.2 channel gating. ABSTRACT: L-type voltage-gated calcium (Cav1) channels have a key role in long-term synaptic plasticity, sensory transduction, muscle contraction and hormone release. A point mutation in the gene encoding Cav1.2 (CACNA1C) causes Tymothy syndrome (TS), a multisystem disorder featuring cardiac arrhythmias, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and adrenal gland dysfunction. In the more severe type-2 form (TS2), the missense mutation G406R is on exon 8 coding for the IS6-helix of the Cav1.2 channel. The mutation causes reduced inactivation and induces autism. How this occurs and how Cav1.2 gating-changes alter cell excitability, neuronal firing and hormone release on a molecular basis is still largely unknown. Here, using the TS2-neo mouse model of TS we show that the G406R mutation altered excitability and reduced secretory activity in adrenal chromaffin cells (CCs). Specifically, the TS2 mutation reduced the rate of voltage-dependent inactivation and shifted leftward the activation and steady-state inactivation of L-type channels. This markedly increased the resting 'window' Ca2+ current that caused an increased percentage of CCs undergoing abnormal action potential (AP) burst firing, cell swelling, reduced mitochondrial metabolism and decreased catecholamine release. The increased 'window' Ca2+ current caused also decreased NaV channel density and increased steady-state inactivation, which contributed to the increased abnormal burst firing. Overnight incubation with the L-type channel blocker nifedipine rescued the normal AP firing of CCs, the density of functioning NaV channels and their steady-state inactivation. We provide evidence that CC malfunction derives from the altered Cav1.2 channel gating and that dihydropyridines are potential therapeutics for ASD.

Early Alterations of Hippocampal Neuronal Firing Induced by Abeta42.

We studied the effect of Amyloid ß 1-42 oligomers (Abeta42) on Ca2+ dependent excitability profile of hippocampal neurons. Abeta42 is one of the Amyloid beta peptides produced by the proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein and participates in the initiating event triggering the progressive dismantling of synapses and neuronal circuits. Our experiments on cultured hippocampal network reveal that Abeta42 increases intracellular Ca2+ concentration by 46% and inhibits firing discharge by 19%. More precisely, Abeta42 differently regulates ryanodine (RyRs), NMDA receptors (NMDARs), and voltage gated calcium channels (VGCCs) by increasing Ca2+ release through RyRs and inhibiting Ca2+ influx through NMDARs and VGCCs. The overall increased intracellular Ca2+ concentration causes stimulation of K+ current carried by big conductance Ca2+ activated potassium (BK) channels and hippocampal network firing inhibition. We conclude that Abeta42 alters neuronal function by means of at least 4 main targets: RyRs, NMDARs, VGCCs, and BK channels. The development of selective modulators of these channels may in turn be useful for developing effective therapies that could enhance the quality of life of AD patients during the early onset of the pathology.

Old and emerging concepts on adrenal chromaffin cell stimulus-secretion coupling.

The chromaffin cells (CCs) of the adrenal medulla play a key role in the control of circulating catecholamines to adapt our body function to stressful conditions. A huge research effort over the last 35 years has converted these cells into the Escherichia coli of neurobiology. CCs have been the testing bench for the development of patch-clamp and amperometric recording techniques and helped clarify most of the known molecular mechanisms that regulate cell excitability, Ca2+ signals associated with secretion, and the molecular apparatus that regulates vesicle fusion. This special issue provides a state-of-the-art on the many well-known and unsolved questions related to the molecular processes at the basis of CC function. The issue is also the occasion to highlight the seminal work of Antonio G. García (Emeritus Professor at UAM, Madrid) who greatly contributed to the advancement of our present knowledge on CC physiology and pharmacology. All the contributors of the present issue are distinguished scientists who are either staff members, external collaborators, or friends of Prof. García.

Roles of Na+, Ca2+, and K+ channels in the generation of repetitive firing and rhythmic bursting in adrenal chromaffin cells.

Adrenal chromaffin cells (CCs) are the main source of circulating catecholamines (CAs) that regulate the body response to stress. Release of CAs is controlled neurogenically by the activity of preganglionic sympathetic neurons through trains of action potentials (APs). APs in CCs are generated by robust depolarization following the activation of nicotinic and muscarinic receptors that are highly expressed in CCs. Bovine, rat, mouse, and human CCs also express a composite array of Na+, K+, and Ca2+ channels that regulate the resting potential, shape the APs, and set the frequency of AP trains. AP trains of increasing frequency induce enhanced release of CAs. If the primary role of CCs is simply to relay preganglionic nerve commands to CA secretion, why should they express such a diverse set of ion channels? An answer to this comes from recent observations that, like in neurons, CCs undergo complex firing patterns of APs suggesting the existence of an intrinsic CC excitability (non-neurogenically controlled). Recent work has shown that CCs undergo occasional or persistent burst firing elicited by altered physiological conditions or deletion of pore-regulating auxiliary subunits. In this review, we aim to give a rationale to the role of the many ion channel types regulating CC excitability. We will first describe their functional properties and then analyze how they contribute to pacemaking, AP shape, and burst waveforms. We will also furnish clear indications on missing ion conductances that may be involved in pacemaking and highlight the contribution of the crucial channels involved in burst firing.

Low pHo boosts burst firing and catecholamine release by blocking TASK-1 and BK channels while preserving Cav1 channels in mouse chromaffin cells.

KEY POINTS: Mouse chromaffin cells (MCCs) generate spontaneous burst-firing that causes large increases of Ca2+ -dependent catecholamine release, and is thus a key mechanism for regulating the functions of MCCs. With the aim to uncover a physiological role for burst-firing we investigated the effects of acidosis on MCC activity. Lowering the extracellular pH (pHo ) from 7.4 to 6.6 induces cell depolarizations of 10-15 mV that generate bursts of ∼330 ms at 1-2 Hz and a 7.4-fold increase of cumulative catecholamine-release. Burst-firing originates from the inhibition of the pH-sensitive TASK-1-channels and a 60% reduction of BK-channel conductance at pHo 6.6. Blockers of the two channels (A1899 and paxilline) mimic the effects of pHo 6.6, and this is reverted by the Cav1 channel blocker nifedipine. MCCs act as pH-sensors. At low pHo , they depolarize, undergo burst-firing and increase catecholamine-secretion, generating an effective physiological response that may compensate for the acute acidosis and hyperkalaemia generated during heavy exercise and muscle fatigue. ABSTRACT: Mouse chromaffin cells (MCCs) generate action potential (AP) firing that regulates the Ca2+ -dependent release of catecholamines (CAs). Recent findings indicate that MCCs possess a variety of spontaneous firing modes that span from the common 'tonic-irregular' to the less frequent 'burst' firing. This latter is evident in a small fraction of MCCs but occurs regularly when Nav1.3/1.7 channels are made less available or when the Slo1ß2-subunit responsible for BK channel inactivation is deleted. Burst firing causes large increases of Ca2+ -entry and potentiates CA release by ∼3.5-fold and thus may be a key mechanism for regulating MCC function. With the aim to uncover a physiological role for burst-firing we investigated the effects of acidosis on MCC activity. Lowering the extracellular pH (pHo ) from 7.4 to 7.0 and 6.6 induces cell depolarizations of 10-15 mV that generate repeated bursts. Bursts at pHo 6.6 lasted ∼330 ms, occurred at 1-2 Hz and caused an ∼7-fold increase of CA cumulative release. Burst firing originates from the inhibition of the pH-sensitive TASK-1/TASK-3 channels and from a 40% BK channel conductance reduction at pHo 7.0. The same pHo had little or no effect on Nav, Cav, Kv and SK channels that support AP firing in MCCs. Burst firing of pHo 6.6 could be mimicked by mixtures of the TASK-1 blocker A1899 (300 nm) and BK blocker paxilline (300 nm) and could be prevented by blocking L-type channels by adding 3 µm nifedipine. Mixtures of the two blockers raised cumulative CA-secretion even more than low pHo (∼12-fold), showing that the action of protons on vesicle release is mainly a result of the ionic conductance changes that increase Ca2+ -entry during bursts. Our data provide direct evidence suggesting that MCCs respond to low pHo with sustained depolarization, burst firing and enhanced CA-secretion, thus mimicking the physiological response of CCs to acute acidosis and hyperkalaemia generated during heavy exercise and muscle fatigue.

Microelectrode Arrays of Diamond-Insulated Graphitic Channels for Real-Time Detection of Exocytotic Events from Cultured Chromaffin Cells and Slices of Adrenal Glands.

A microstructured graphitic 4 × 4 multielectrode array was embedded in a single-crystal diamond substrate (4 × 4 µG-SCD MEA) for real-time monitoring of exocytotic events from cultured chromaffin cells and adrenal slices. The current approach relies on the development of a parallel ion beam lithographic technique, which assures the time-effective fabrication of extended arrays with reproducible electrode dimensions. The reported device is suitable for performing amperometric and voltammetric recordings with high sensitivity and temporal resolution, by simultaneously acquiring data from 16 rectangularly shaped microelectrodes (20 × 3.5 µm(2)) separated by 200 µm gaps. Taking advantage of the array geometry we addressed the following specific issues: (i) detect both the spontaneous and KCl-evoked secretion simultaneously from several chromaffin cells directly cultured on the device surface, (ii) resolve the waveform of different subsets of exocytotic events, and (iii) monitoring quantal secretory events from thin slices of the adrenal gland. The frequency of spontaneous release was low (0.12 and 0.3 Hz, respectively, for adrenal slices and cultured cells) and increased up to 0.9 Hz after stimulation with 30 mM KCl in cultured cells. The spike amplitude as well as rise and decay time were comparable with those measured by carbon fiber microelectrodes and allowed to identify three different subsets of secretory events associated with "full fusion" events, "kiss-and-run" and "kiss-and-stay" exocytosis, confirming that the device has adequate sensitivity and time resolution for real-time recordings. The device offers the significant advantage of shortening the time to collect data by allowing simultaneous recordings from cell populations either in primary cell cultures or in intact tissues.

Dual action of leptin on rest-firing and stimulated catecholamine release via phosphoinositide 3-kinase-driven BK channel up-regulation in mouse chromaffin cells.

KEY POINTS: Leptin is an adipokine produced by the adipose tissue regulating body weight through its appetite-suppressing effect and, as such, exerts a relevant action on the adipo-adrenal axis. Leptin has a dual action on adrenal mouse chromaffin cells both at rest and during stimulation. At rest, the adipokine inhibits the spontaneous firing of most cells by enhancing the probability of BK channel opening through the phosphoinositide 3-kinase signalling cascade. This inhibitory effect is absent in db(-) /db(-) mice deprived of Ob receptors. During sustained stimulation, leptin preserves cell excitability by generating well-adapted action potential (AP) trains of lower frequency and broader width and increases catecholamine secretion by increasing the size of the ready-releasable pool and the rate of vesicle release. In conclusion, leptin dampens AP firing at rest but preserves AP firing and enhances catecholamine release during sustained stimulation, highlighting the importance of the adipo-adrenal axis in the leptin-mediated increase of sympathetic tone and catecholamine release. ABSTRACT: Leptin is an adipokine produced by the adipose tissue regulating body weight through its appetite-suppressing effect. Besides being expressed in the hypothalamus and hippocampus, leptin receptors (ObRs) are also present in chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla. In the present study, we report the effect of leptin on mouse chromaffin cell (MCC) functionality, focusing on cell excitability and catecholamine secretion. Acute application of leptin (1 nm) on spontaneously firing MCCs caused a slowly developing membrane hyperpolarization followed by complete blockade of action potential (AP) firing. This inhibitory effect at rest was abolished by the BK channel blocker paxilline (1 µm), suggesting the involvement of BK potassium channels. Single-channel recordings in 'perforated microvesicles' confirmed that leptin increased BK channel open probability without altering its unitary conductance. BK channel up-regulation was associated with the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signalling cascade because the PI3K specific inhibitor wortmannin (100 nm) fully prevented BK current increase. We also tested the effect of leptin on evoked AP firing and Ca(2+) -driven exocytosis. Although leptin preserves well-adapted AP trains of lower frequency, APs are broader and depolarization-evoked exocytosis is increased as a result of the larger size of the ready-releasable pool and higher frequency of vesicle release. The kinetics and quantal size of single secretory events remained unaltered. Leptin had no effect on firing and secretion in db(-) /db(-) mice lacking the ObR gene, confirming its specificity. In conclusion, leptin exhibits a dual action on MCC activity. It dampens AP firing at rest but preserves AP firing and increases catecholamine secretion during sustained stimulation, highlighting the importance of the adipo-adrenal axis in the leptin-mediated increase of sympathetic tone and catecholamine release.

Reduced availability of voltage-gated sodium channels by depolarization or blockade by tetrodotoxin boosts burst firing and catecholamine release in mouse chromaffin cells.

KEY POINTS: Mouse chromaffin cells (MCCs) of the adrenal medulla possess fast-inactivating Nav channels whose availability alters spontaneous action potential firing patterns and the Ca(2+)-dependent secretion of catecholamines. Here, we report MCCs expressing large densities of neuronal fast-inactivating Nav1.3 and Nav1.7 channels that carry little or no subthreshold pacemaker currents and can be slowly inactivated by 50% upon slight membrane depolarization. Reducing Nav1.3/Nav1.7 availability by tetrodotoxin or by sustained depolarization near rest leads to a switch from tonic to burst-firing patterns that give rise to elevated Ca(2+)-influx and increased catecholamine release. Spontaneous burst firing is also evident in a small percentage of control MCCs. Our results establish that burst firing comprises an intrinsic firing mode of MCCs that boosts their output. This occurs particularly when Nav channel availability is reduced by sustained splanchnic nerve stimulation or prolonged cell depolarizations induced by acidosis, hyperkalaemia and increased muscarine levels. ABSTRACT: Action potential (AP) firing in mouse chromaffin cells (MCCs) is mainly sustained by Cav1.3 L-type channels that drive BK and SK currents and regulate the pacemaking cycle. As secretory units, CCs optimally recruit Ca(2+) channels when stimulated, a process potentially dependent on the modulation of the AP waveform. Our previous work has shown that a critical determinant of AP shape is voltage-gated sodium channel (Nav) channel availability. Here, we studied the contribution of Nav channels to firing patterns and AP shapes at rest (-50 mV) and upon stimulation (-40 mV). Using quantitative RT-PCR and immunoblotting, we show that MCCs mainly express tetrodotoxin (TTX)-sensitive, fast-inactivating Nav1.3 and Nav1.7 channels that carry little or no Na(+) current during slow ramp depolarizations. Time constants and the percentage of recovery from fast inactivation and slow entry into closed-state inactivation are similar to that of brain Nav1.3 and Nav1.7 channels. The fraction of available Nav channels is reduced by half after 10 mV depolarization from -50 to -40 mV. This leads to low amplitude spikes and a reduction in repolarizing K(+) currents inverting the net current from outward to inward during the after-hyperpolarization. When Nav channel availability is reduced by up to 20% of total, either by TTX block or steady depolarization, a switch from tonic to burst firing is observed. The spontaneous occurrence of high frequency bursts is rare under control conditions (14% of cells) but leads to major Ca(2+)-entry and increased catecholamine release. Thus, Nav1.3/Nav1.7 channel availability sets the AP shape, burst-firing initiation and regulates catecholamine secretion in MCCs. Nav channel inactivation becomes important during periods of high activity, mimicking stress responses.

Heterogeneous distribution of exocytotic microdomains in adrenal chromaffin cells resolved by high-density diamond ultra-microelectrode arrays.

Here we describe the ability of a high-density diamond microelectrode array targeted to resolve multi-site detection of fast exocytotic events from single cells. The array consists of nine boron-doped nanocrystalline diamond ultra-microelectrodes (9-Ch NCD-UMEA) radially distributed within a circular area of the dimensions of a single cell. The device can be operated in voltammetric or chronoamperometric configuration. Sensitivity to catecholamines, tested by dose-response calibrations, set the lowest detectable concentration of adrenaline to ∼5 µm. Catecholamine release from bovine or mouse chromaffin cells could be triggered by electrical stimulation or external KCl-enriched solutions. Spikes detected from the cell apex using carbon fibre microelectrodes showed an excellent correspondence with events measured at the bottom of the cell by the 9-Ch NCD-UMEA, confirming the ability of the array to resolve single quantal secretory events. Subcellular localization of exocytosis was provided by assigning each quantal event to one of the nine channels based on its location. The resulting mapping highlights the heterogeneous distribution of secretory activity in cell microdomains of 12-27 µm2. In bovine chromaffin cells, secretion was highly heterogeneous with zones of high and medium activity in 54% of the cell surface and zones of low or no activity in the remainder. The 'non-active' ('silent') zones covered 24% of the total and persisted for 6-8 min, indicating stable location. The 9-Ch NCD-UMEA therefore appears suitable for investigating the microdomain organization of neurosecretion with high spatial resolution.