MYB24 orchestrates terpene and flavonol metabolism as light responses to anthocyanin depletion in variegated grape berries.

Variegation is a rare type of mosaicism not fully studied in plants, especially fruits. We examined red and white sections of grape (Vitis vinifera cv. 'Béquignol') variegated berries and found that accumulation of products from branches of the phenylpropanoid and isoprenoid pathways showed an opposite tendency. Light-responsive flavonol and monoterpene levels increased in anthocyanin-depleted areas in correlation with increasing MYB24 expression. Cistrome analysis suggested that MYB24 binds to the promoters of 22 terpene synthase (TPS) genes, as well as 32 photosynthesis/light-related genes, including carotenoid pathway members, the flavonol regulator HY5 HOMOLOGUE (HYH), and other radiation response genes. Indeed, TPS35, TPS09, the carotenoid isomerase gene CRTISO2, and HYH were activated in the presence of MYB24 and MYC2. We suggest that MYB24 modulates ultraviolet and high-intensity visible light stress responses that include terpene and flavonol synthesis and potentially affects carotenoids. The MYB24 regulatory network is developmentally triggered after the onset of berry ripening, while the absence of anthocyanin sunscreens accelerates its activation, likely in a dose-dependent manner due to increased radiation exposure. Anthocyanins and flavonols in variegated berry skins act as effective sunscreens but for different wavelength ranges. The expression patterns of stress marker genes in red and white sections of 'Béquignol' berries strongly suggest that MYB24 promotes light stress amelioration but only partly succeeds during late ripening.

Epigenetic differences between wild and cultivated grapevines highlight the contribution of DNA methylation during crop domestication.

The domestication process in grapevines has facilitated the fixation of desired traits. Nowadays, vegetative propagation through cuttings enables easier preservation of these genotypes compared to sexual reproduction. Nonetheless, even with vegetative propagation, various phenotypes are often present within the same vineyard due to the accumulation of somatic mutations. These mutations are not the sole factors influencing phenotype. Alongside somatic variations, epigenetic variation has been proposed as a pivotal player in regulating phenotypic variability acquired during domestication. The emergence of these epialleles might have significantly influenced grapevine domestication over time. This study aims to investigate the impact of domestication on methylation patterns in cultivated grapevines. Reduced-representation bisulfite sequencing was conducted on 18 cultivated and wild accessions. Results revealed that cultivated grapevines exhibited higher methylation levels than their wild counterparts. Differential Methylation Analysis between wild and cultivated grapevines identified a total of 9955 differentially methylated cytosines, of which 78% were hypermethylated in cultivated grapevines. Functional analysis shows that core methylated genes (consistently methylated in both wild and cultivated accessions) are associated with stress response and terpenoid/isoprenoid metabolic processes. Meanwhile, genes with differential methylation are linked to protein targeting to the peroxisome, ethylene regulation, histone modifications, and defense response. Collectively, our results highlight the significant roles that epialleles may have played throughout the domestication history of grapevines.

Low-Cost Microcontroller-Based Multiparametric Probe for Coastal Area Monitoring.

The monitoring of the coastal environment is a crucial factor in ensuring its proper management. Nevertheless, existing monitoring technologies are limited due to their cost, temporal resolution, and maintenance needs. Therefore, limited data are available for coastal environments. In this paper, we present a low-cost multiparametric probe that can be deployed in coastal areas and integrated into a wireless sensor network to send data to a database. The multiparametric probe is composed of physical sensors capable of measuring water temperature, salinity, and total suspended solids (TSS). The node can store the data in an SD card or send them. A real-time clock is used to tag the data and to ensure data gathering every hour, putting the node in deep sleep mode in the meantime. The physical sensors for salinity and TSS are created for this probe and calibrated. The calibration results indicate that no effect of temperature is found for both sensors and no interference of salinity in the measuring of TSS or vice versa. The obtained calibration model for salinity is characterised by a correlation coefficient of 0.9 and a Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 0.74 g/L. Meanwhile, different calibration models for TSS were obtained based on using different light wavelengths. The best case was using a simple regression model with blue light. The model is characterised by a correlation coefficient of 0.99 and an MAE of 12 mg/L. When both infrared and blue light are used to prevent the effect of different particle sizes, the determination coefficient of 0.98 and an MAE of 57 mg/L characterised the multiple regression model.

Mosquito Attractants.

Vector control and personal protection against anthropophilic mosquitoes mainly rely on the use of insecticides and repellents. The search for mosquito-attractive semiochemicals has been the subject of intense studies for decades, and new compounds or odor blends are regularly proposed as lures for odor-baited traps. We present a comprehensive and up-to-date review of all the studies that have evaluated the attractiveness of volatiles to mosquitoes, including individual chemical compounds, synthetic blends of compounds, or natural host or plant odors. A total of 388 studies were analysed, and our survey highlights the existence of 105 attractants (77 volatile compounds, 17 organism odors, and 11 synthetic blends) that have been proved effective in attracting one or several mosquito species. The exhaustive list of these attractants is presented in various tables, while the most common mosquito attractants - for which effective attractiveness has been demonstrated in numerous studies - are discussed throughout the text. The increasing knowledge on compounds attractive to mosquitoes may now serve as the basis for complementary vector control strategies, such as those involving lure-and-kill traps, or the development of mass trapping. This review also points out the necessity of further improving the search for new volatile attractants, such as new compound blends in specific ratios, considering that mosquito attraction to odors may vary over the life of the mosquito or among species. Finally, the use of mosquito attractants will undoubtedly have an increasingly important role to play in future integrated vector management programs.

Identification and Synthesis of Putative Pheromone Components of the Threatened Salt Marsh Bagworm Moth, Whittleia retiella (Lepidoptera: Psychidae).

Whittleia retiella (Newman, 1847) is a threatened salt marsh species of the bagworm moth family Psychidae. For its preservation it is necessary to develop efficient tools to survey its distribution and habitat requirements in order to use appropriate conservation methods. Such tools may be pheromone-based monitoring systems, which have documented efficacy in establishing the occurrence of cryptic insect species in nature. By using gas chromatography combined with electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD), we found two compounds in female W. retiella headspace samples and whole-body extracts that elicited electrophysiological activity in male antennae. Gas chromatograpy coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) operating in electron impact (EI) mode and comparison of the analytical data with those of synthetic reference compounds showed the chemical structures of these putative pheromone components to be (1S)-1-methylpropyl (5Z)-dec-5-enoate and 1-methylethyl (5Z)-dec-5-enoate. Field assays using baits loaded with synthetic compounds revealed that conspecific males were attracted to (1S)-1-methylpropyl (5Z)-dec-5-enoate alone or in combination with 1-methylethyl (5Z)-dec-5-enoate, whereas 1-methylethyl (5Z)-dec-5-enoate neither attracted nor repelled males in the field assays when tested alone. This study shows the potential of using (1S)-1-methylpropyl (5Z)-dec-5-enoate for monitoring W. retiella to gather more detailed information about the geographic distribution and habitat needs of this rare moth.

Genetic analysis of a white-to-red berry skin color reversion and its transcriptomic and metabolic consequences in grapevine (Vitis vinifera cv. 'Moscatel Galego').

BACKGROUND: Somatic mutations occurring within meristems of vegetative propagation material have had a major role in increasing the genetic diversity of the domesticated grapevine (Vitis vinifera subsp. vinifera). The most well studied somatic variation in this species is the one affecting fruit pigmentation, leading to a plethora of different berry skin colors. Color depletion and reversion are often observed in the field. In this study we analyzed the origin of a novel white-to-red skin color reversion and studied its possible metabolic and transcriptomic consequences on cv. 'Muscat à Petits Grains Blancs' (synonym cv. 'Moscatel Galego Branco'), a member of the large family of Muscats. RESULTS: The mild red-skinned variant (cv. 'Muscat à Petits Grains Rouge', synonym cv. 'Moscatel Galego Roxo'), characterized by a preferential accumulation of di-hydroxylated anthocyanins, showed in heterozygosis a partially-excised Gret1 retrotransposon in the promoter region of the MYBA1 anthocyanin regulator, while MYBA2 was still in homozygosis for its non-functional allele. Through metabolic (anthocyanin, resveratrol and piceid quantifications) and transcriptomic (RNA-Seq) analyses, we show that within a near-isogenic background, the transcriptomic consequences of color reversion are largely associated to diminished light/UV-B responses probably as a consequence of the augment of metabolic sunscreens (i.e. anthocyanins). CONCLUSIONS: We propose that the reduced activity of the flavonoid tri-hydroxylated sub-branch and decreased anthocyanin synthesis and modification (e.g. methylation and acylation) are the potential causes for the mild red-skinned coloration in the pigmented revertant. The observed positive relation between anthocyanins and stilbenes could be attributable to an increased influx of phenylpropanoid intermediaries due to the replenished activity of MYBA1, an effect yet to be demonstrated in other somatic variants.

With or without you: Effects of the concurrent range expansion of an herbivore and its natural enemy on native species interactions.

Global climatic changes may lead to the arrival of multiple range-expanding species from different trophic levels into new habitats, either simultaneously or in quick succession, potentially causing the introduction of manifold novel interactions into native food webs. Unraveling the complex biotic interactions between native and range-expanding species is critical to understand the impact of climate change on community ecology, but experimental evidence is lacking. In a series of laboratory experiments that simulated direct and indirect species interactions, we investigated the effects of the concurrent arrival of a range-expanding insect herbivore in Europe, Spodoptera littoralis, and its associated parasitoid Microplitis rufiventris, on the native herbivore Mamestra brassicae, and its associated parasitoid Microplitis mediator, when co-occurring on a native plant, Brassica rapa. Overall, direct interactions between the herbivores were beneficial for the exotic herbivore (higher pupal weight than the native herbivore), and negative for the native herbivore (higher mortality than the exotic herbivore). At the third trophic level, both parasitoids were unable to parasitize the herbivore they did not coexist with, but the presence of the exotic parasitoid still negatively affected the native herbivore (increased mortality) and the native parasitoid (decreased parasitism rate), through failed parasitism attempts and interference effects. Our results suggest different interaction scenarios depending on whether S. littoralis and its parasitoid arrive to the native tritrophic system separately or concurrently, as the negative effects associated with the presence of the parasitoid were dependent on the presence of the exotic herbivore. These findings illustrate the complexity and interconnectedness of multitrophic changes resulting from concurrent species arrival to new environments, and the need for integrating the ecological effects of such arrivals into the general theoretical framework of global invasion patterns driven by climatic change.

Sex, Mosquitoes and Epidemics: An Evaluation of Zika Disease Dynamics.

Since the first major outbreak reported on the island Yap in 2007, the Zika virus spread has alerted the scientific community worldwide. Zika is an arbovirus transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes; particularly in Central and South America, the main vector is the same mosquito that transmits dengue and chikungunya, Aedes aegypti. Seeking to understand the dynamics of spread of the Zika, in this paper, three mathematical models are presented, in which vector transmission of the virus, sexual contact transmission and migration are considered. Numerical analysis of these models allows us to have a clear view of the effects of sexual transmission and migration in the spread of the virus, showing that sexual transmission influences the magnitude of the outbreaks and migration generates outbreaks over time, each of lower intensity than the previous.

'Do you remember the first time?' Host plant preference in a moth is modulated by experiences during larval feeding and adult mating.

In insects, like in other animals, experience-based modulation of preference, a form of phenotypic plasticity, is common in heterogeneous environments. However, the role of multiple fitness-relevant experiences on insect preference remains largely unexplored. For the multivoltine polyphagous moth Spodoptera littoralis we investigated effects of larval and adult experiences on subsequent reproductive behaviours. We demonstrate, for the first time in male and female insects, that mating experience on a plant modulates plant preference in subsequent reproductive behaviours, whereas exposure to the plant alone or plant together with sex pheromone does not affect this preference. When including larval feeding experiences, we found that both larval rearing and adult mating experiences modulate host plant preference. These findings represent the first evidence that host plant preferences in polyphagous insects are determined by a combination of innate preferences modulated by sensory feedback triggered by multiple rewarding experiences throughout their lifetime.

Field Abundance Patterns and Odor-Mediated Host Choice by Clover Seed Weevils, Apion fulvipes and Apion trifolii (Coleoptera: Apionidae).

The clover seed weevils Apion fulvipes Geoffroy, 1785 and Apion trifolii L., 1768 (Coleoptera: Apionidae) cause major losses to seed production of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) and red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), respectively. Clover is important as animal forage and an alternative to inorganic fertilizers. Because clover is mainly pollinated by bees, the use of insecticides in management of these weevils is discouraged. To gain basic knowledge for development of alternative management strategies, we investigated weevil field abundance over two growing seasons, as well as feeding and olfactory host preferences by A. fulvipes and A. trifolii. Field trap catches in southern Sweden revealed that white clover was dominated by A. fulvipes and red clover by A. trifolii. For both weevil species, female catches were positively correlated to the number of clover buds and flowers in the field. In feeding and olfactory bioassays, females of A. fulvipes and A. trifolii showed a preference for T. repens and T. pratense, respectively. However, the feeding preference was lost when the antennae were removed, indicating a significant role of olfaction in host choice. Male weevils of both species did not show clear olfactory or feeding preferences for host plant species. The field study and laboratory bioassays demonstrate that, at least for female weevils, olfaction is important for selection of host plants. We discuss these novel results in the context of managing these important pests of clover by exploiting olfaction and behavioral attraction to host plant volatiles.

Biological effects of Lippia alba essential oil against Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti.

The management of mosquito resistance to chemical insecticides and the biting behaviour of some species are motivating the search for complementary and/or alternative control methods. The use of plants is increasingly considered as a sustainable biological solution for vector control. The aim of this study was to evaluate the biological effects of the essential oil (EO) of Lippia alba harvested in Abidjan (Côte d'Ivoire) against Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Phytochemical compounds were identified by GC-MS. Knockdown and mortality were determined according to the WHO test tube protocol. Contact irritancy was assessed by observing the movement of mosquitoes from a treated WHO tube to a second untreated tube. Non-contact repellency was assessed using a standardised high-throughput screening system (HITSS). Blood meal inhibition was assessed using a membrane feeding assay treated with EO. The EO was identified as the citral chemotype. The EO gave 100% KD60 in both species at a concentration of 1%. Mortalities of 100% were recorded with An. gambiae and Ae. aegypti at concentrations of 1% and 5% respectively. The highest proportions of females escaping during the contact irritancy test were 100% for An. gambiae at 1% concentration and 94% for Ae. aegypti at 2.5% concentration. The 1% concentration produced the highest proportions of repelled mosquitoes in the non-contact repellency tests: 76.8% (An. gambiae) and 68.5% (Ae. aegypti). The blood meal inhibition rate at a dose of 10% was 98.4% in Ae. aegypti but only 15.5% in An. gambiae. The citral chemotype of L. alba EO has promising biological effects in both species that make it a potentially good candidate for its use in mosquito control. The results obtained in this study encourage the further evaluation of L. alba EOs from other localities and of different chemotypes, under laboratory and field conditions.

High-throughput behavioral phenotyping of tiny arthropods: Chemosensory traits in a mesostigmatic hematophagous mite.

Pest management using attractive and/or repellent semiochemicals is a key alternative to synthetic insecticides. Its implementation requires a good understanding of the intra- and interspecific chemical interactions of arthropod pests, their interactions with their abiotic environment, as well as their evolutionary dynamics. Although mites include many pest species and biocontrol agents of economic importance in agriculture, their chemical ecology is largely understudied compared to insects. We developed a high-throughput ethomics system to analyze these small arthropods and conducted a study on Dermanyssus gallinae, a problematic poultry parasite in the egg industry. Our purpose was to elucidate the role played by host-derived odorants (synthetic kairomone) and conspecific odorants (mite body odors) in D. gallinae. After validating our nanocomputer controlled olfactometric system with volatile semiochemicals of known biological activity, we characterized response traits to kairomonal and/or pheromonal volatile blends in mites from different populations. We were able to accurately characterize the repulsion or attraction behaviors in >1000 individual specimens in a standardized way. Our results confirm the presence of a volatile aggregation pheromone emitted by D. gallinae and bring new elements to the effect of odor source presentation. Our results also confirm the attractive effect on Dermanyssus gallinae of a blend of volatile compounds contained in hen odor, while highlighting a repellent effect at high concentration. Significant interindividual and interpopulation variation was noted particularly in responses to synthetic kairomone. This information lays a valuable foundation for further exploring the emergence risk of resistance to semiochemicals.

Geographic variation in resource allocation to the abdomen in geometrid moths.

A resource allocation trade-off is expected when resources from a common pool are allocated to two or more traits. In holometabolous insects, resource allocation to different functions during metamorphosis relies completely on larval-derived resources. At adult eclosion, resource allocation to the abdomen at the expense of other body parts can be seen as a rough estimate of resource allocation to reproduction. Theory suggests geographic variation in resource allocation to the abdomen, but there are currently no empirical data on it. We measured resource allocation to the abdomen at adult eclosion in four geometrid moths along a latitudinal gradient. Resource (total dry material, carbon, nitrogen) allocation to the abdomen showed positive allometry with body size. We found geographic variation in resource allocation to the abdomen in each species, and this variation was independent of allometry in three species. Geographic variation in resource allocation to the abdomen was complex. Resource allocation to the abdomen was relatively high in partially bivoltine populations in two species, which fits theoretical predictions, but the overall support for theory is weak. This study indicates that the geographic variation in resource allocation to the abdomen is not an allometric consequence of geographic variation in resource acquisition (i.e., body size). Thus, there is a component of resource allocation that can evolve independently of resource acquisition. Our results also suggest that there may be intraspecific variation in the degree of capital versus income breeding.

Coastal Wild Grapevine Accession (Vitis vinifera L. ssp. sylvestris) Shows Distinct Late and Early Transcriptome Changes under Salt Stress in Comparison to Commercial Rootstock Richter 110.

Increase in soil salinity, driven by climate change, is a widespread constrain for viticulture across several regions, including the Mediterranean basin. The implementation of salt-tolerant varieties is sought after to reduce the negative impact of salinity in grape production. An accession of wild grapevine (Vitis vinifera L. ssp. sylvestris), named AS1B, found on the coastline of Asturias (Spain), could be of interest toward the achievement of salt-tolerant varieties, as it demonstrated the ability to survive and grow under high levels of salinity. In the present study, AS1B is compared against widely cultivated commercial rootstock Richter 110, regarding their survival capabilities, and transcriptomic profiles analysis allowed us to identify the genes by employing RNA-seq and gene ontology analyses under increasing salinity and validate (via RT-qPCR) seven salinity-stress-induced genes. The results suggest contrasting transcriptomic responses between AS1B and Richter 110. AS1B is more responsive to a milder increase in salinity and builds up specific mechanisms of tolerance over a sustained salt stress, while Richter 110 maintains a constitutive expression until high and prolonged saline inputs, when it mainly shows responses to osmotic stress. The genetic basis of AS1B's strategy to confront salinity could be valuable in cultivar breeding programs, to expand the current range of salt-tolerant rootstocks, aiming to improve the adaptation of viticulture against climate change.

Natural plant diet impacts phenotypic expression of pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles mosquitoes.

Success in reducing malaria transmission through vector control is threatened by insecticide resistance in mosquitoes. Although the proximal molecular mechanisms and genetic determinants involved are well documented, little is known about the influence of the environment on mosquito resistance to insecticides. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of plant sugar feeding on the response of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato to insecticides. Adults were fed with one of four treatments, namely a 5% glucose control solution, nectariferous flowers of Barleria lupulina, of Cascabela thevetia and a combination of both B. lupulina + C. thevetia. WHO tube tests were performed with 0.05% and 0.5% deltamethrin, and knockdown rate (KD) and the 24 h mosquito mortality were measured. Plant diet significantly influenced mosquito KD rate at both concentrations of deltamethrin. Following exposure to 0.05% deltamethrin, the B. lupulina diet induced a 2.5 fold-increase in mosquito mortality compared to 5% glucose. Species molecular identification confirmed the predominance of An. gambiae (60% of the samples) over An. coluzzii and An. arabiensis in our study area. The kdr mutation L1014F displayed an allelic frequency of 0.75 and was positively associated with increased phenotypic resistance to deltamethrin. Plant diet, particularly B. lupulina, increased the susceptibility of mosquitoes to insecticides. The finding that B. lupulina-fed control individuals (i.e. not exposed to deltamethrin) also displayed increased 24 h mortality suggests that plant-mediated effects may be driven by a direct effect of plant diet on mosquito survival rather than indirect effects through interference with insecticide-resistance mechanisms. Thus, some plant species may weaken mosquitoes, making them less vigorous and more vulnerable to the insecticide. There is a need for further investigation, using a wider range of plant species and insecticides, in combination with other relevant environmental factors, to better understand the expression and evolution of insecticide resistance.

Latitudinal insect body size clines revisited: a critical evaluation of the saw-tooth model.

1. Insect body size is predicted to increase with decreasing latitude because time available for growth increases. In insects with changing voltinism (i.e. number of generations per season), sharp decreases in development time and body size are expected at season lengths where new generations are added to the phenology of a species, giving rise to saw-tooth clines in these traits across latitudes. Growth rate variation may affect the magnitude of variation in body size or even reverse the saw-tooth cline. 2. In this study, we analyse latitudinal body size clines in four geometrid moths with changing voltinism in a common laboratory environment. In addition to body size, we measured larval development time and growth rate and genetic correlations among the three traits. 3. The patterns of clinal variation in body size were diverse, and the theory was not supported even when saw-tooth body size clines were found. Larval development time increased and growth rate decreased consistently with increasing season length, the clines in these traits being uniform. 4. The consistencies of development time and growth rate clines suggest a common mechanism underlying the observations. Such a mechanism is discussed in relation to the complex interdependencies among the traits.

COVID-19 optimal vaccination policies: A modeling study on efficacy, natural and vaccine-induced immunity responses.

About a year into the pandemic, COVID-19 accumulates more than two million deaths worldwide. Despite non-pharmaceutical interventions such as social distance, mask-wearing, and restrictive lockdown, the daily confirmed cases remain growing. Vaccine developments from Pfizer, Moderna, and Gamaleya Institute reach more than 90% efficacy and sustain the vaccination campaigns in multiple countries. However, natural and vaccine-induced immunity responses remain poorly understood. There are great expectations, but the new SARS-CoV-2 variants demand to inquire if the vaccines will be highly protective or induce permanent immunity. Further, in the first quarter of 2021, vaccine supply is scarce. Consequently, some countries that are applying the Pfizer vaccine will delay its second required dose. Likewise, logistic supply, economic and political implications impose a set of grand challenges to develop vaccination policies. Therefore, health decision-makers require tools to evaluate hypothetical scenarios and evaluate admissible responses. Following some of the WHO-SAGE recommendations, we formulate an optimal control problem with mixed constraints to describe vaccination schedules. Our solution identifies vaccination policies that minimize the burden of COVID-19 quantified by the number of disability-adjusted years of life lost. These optimal policies ensure the vaccination coverage of a prescribed population fraction in a given time horizon and preserve hospitalization occupancy below a risk level. We explore "via simulation" plausible scenarios regarding efficacy, coverage, vaccine-induced, and natural immunity. Our simulations suggest that response regarding vaccine-induced immunity and reinfection periods would play a dominant role in mitigating COVID-19.

Author Correction: Chemical signal is in the blend: bases of plant-pollinator encounter in a highly specialized interaction.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Chemical signal is in the blend: bases of plant-pollinator encounter in a highly specialized interaction.

In several highly specialized plant-insect interactions, scent-mediated specificity of pollinator attraction is directed by the emission and detection of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Although some plants engaged in such interactions emit singular compounds, others emit mixtures of VOCs commonly emitted by plants. We investigated the chemical ecological bases of host plant recognition in the nursery pollination mutualism between the dioecious Ficus carica and its specific pollinator Blastophaga psenes. Using Y-tube olfactometer tests, we show that B. psenes females are attracted by VOCs of receptive figs of both sexes and do not exhibit preference for VOCs of either male or female figs. Electrophysiological tests and chemical analysis revealed that of all the VOCs emitted by receptive figs, only five were found to be active on female antennae. Behavioural tests show that, in contrast to VOCs presented alone, only a blend with a particular proportion of four of these VOCs is as attractive as the odour of receptive figs, and that if there is a very small change in this blend proportion, the pollinator is no longer attracted. This study revealed that in highly specialized mutualistic interactions specificity could be mediated by a particular blend of common compounds emitted by plants.

Behavioural adaptations of mosquito vectors to insecticide control.

Behavioural resistance to insecticides may be an important factor restraining the efficacy of vector control against mosquito-transmitted diseases. However, our understanding of the mechanisms underlying such behavioural resistance remains sparse. In this review, we focus on the behavioural adaptations of mosquito vectors in response to the use of insecticides and provide a general framework for guiding future investigations. We present our review of vector behaviour in the field and a conceptual classification of behavioural adaptations to insecticides. We emphasise that behavioural adaptations can result from constitutive or induced (i.e. phenotypically plastic) traits. Lastly, we identify gaps in knowledge limiting a better understanding of how mosquito behavioural adaptations may affect the fight against vector-borne diseases.