Intra-observer reproducibility and inter-observer agreement of Fels skeletal age assessments among male tennis players 8-16 years.

BACKGROUND: Skeletal age (SA) is an estimate of biological maturity status that is commonly used in sport-related medical examinations. This study considered intra-observer reproducibility and inter-observer agreement of SA assessments among male tennis players. METHODS: SA was assessed with the Fels method in 97 male tennis players with chronological ages (CA) spanning 8.7-16.8 years. Radiographs were evaluated by two independent trained observers. Based on the difference between SA and CA, players were classified as late, average or early maturing; if a player was skeletally mature, he was noted as such as an SA is not assigned. RESULTS: The magnitude of intra-individual differences between repeated SA assessments were d = 0.008 year (observer A) and d = 0.001 year (observer B); the respective coefficients of variation were 1.11% and 1.75%. Inter-observer mean differences were negligible (t = 1.252, p = 0.210) and the intra-class correlation coefficient was nearly perfect (ICC = 0.995). Concordance of classifications of players by maturity status between observers was 90%. CONCLUSION: Fels SA assessments were highly reproducible and showed an acceptable level of inter-observer agreement between trained examiners. Classifications of players by skeletal maturity status based on assessments of the two observers were highly concordant, though not 100%. The results highlight the importance of experienced observers in skeletal maturity assessments.

Growth, body composition and bone mineral density among pubertal male athletes: intra-individual 12-month changes and comparisons between soccer players and swimmers.

BACKGROUND: Puberty is a period of intense changes in human body and, additionally, participation in sports is viewed as prominent form of physical activity among male adolescent athletes. The current study was aimed to examine the intra-individual changes in body composition and bone tissue during years of maximal growth and the effect of 12-month participation in sports contrasting in mechanical impact. METHODS: The sample included 40 male adolescent athletes (soccer: n = 20; swimming: n = 20) aged 12.57 ± 0.37 years who were followed for 12 months. Stature and body mass were measured, bone mineral content (BMC), areal bone mineral density (aBMD), lean soft and fat tissues assessed using DXA. Food intake was estimated using a questionnaires and training sessions individually monitored. Repeated measures ANOVA tested the differences between sports and 12-month intra-individual variation (time moments: TM1, TM2). The analyses on aBMD for total body and total body less head were repeated controlling for variation in stature at baseline. RESULTS: Soccer players completed 63 ± 31 sessions (95 ± 47 h). Respective values for swimmers were 248 ± 28 sessions and 390 ± 56 h. In general, the analysis of aBMD as dependent variable evidenced significant effect of sport-associated variation (F = 5.254, p < 0.01; η2 = 0.35) and 12-month increments, particularly at lower limbs (F = 97.238, p < 0.01; η2 = 0.85). Respective mean values for aBMD were SCCTM1 = 0.885 g.cm-2, SWMTM1 = 0.847 g.cm-2, SCCTM2 = 0.939 g.cm-2, SWMTM2 = 0.880. Regarding the lean soft tissue, the magnitude of effects was very large for intra-individual variation (F = 223.043, p < 0.01; η2 = 0.92) and moderate between sports (F = 7.850, p < 0.01; η2 = 0.41): SCCTM1 = 30.6 kg, SWMTM1 = 34.9 kg, SCCTM2 = 35.8 kg, SWMTM2 = 40.5 kg). Finally, d-cohen values reporting percentage of intra-individual changes in aBMD between soccer players ad swimmers were large for the trochanter (d = 1.2; annual increments: SCC = 8.1%, SWM = 3.6%). CONCLUSION: Puberty appeared as a period of significant intra-individual changes in lean soft tissue and bone mineral density. With increasing accumulated training experience, mean difference between sports contrasting in mechanical impact tended to me more pronounced in particular at the lower limbs.

Scaling left ventricular mass in adolescent female soccer players.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to examine the contribution of chronological age (CA), skeletal maturation, training experience and concurrent body size descriptors, to inter-individual variance in left ventricular mass (LVM) among female adolescent soccer players. METHODS: The sample included 228 female soccer players 11.8-17.1 years. Training experience defined as years of participation in competitive soccer (range 2-9 years), was obtained by interview. Stature, body mass and skinfolds (triceps, medial calf) were measured. Fat mass was estimated; Fat-free mass was derived. LVM was assessed by echocardiography. Skeletal maturity status was as the difference of skeletal age (SA, Fels method) minus CA. RESULTS: Fat-free mass was the most prominent single predictor of LVM (R2 = 36.6%). It was associated with an allometric coefficient close to linearity (k = 0.924, 95%CI: 0.737 to 1.112). A significant multiplicative allometric model including body mass, fat-free mass, CA, training experience and skeletal maturity status was also obtained (R = 0.684; R2 = 46.2%). CONCLUSION: Stature has limitations as a valid size descriptor of LVM. Body mass, fat-free mass, training experience, CA, body mass and skeletal maturity status were relevant factors contributing to inter-individual variability in LVM.

Allometric Modeling of Wingate Test among Adult Male Athletes from Combat Sports.

Background and objectives: Athletes from combat sports are grouped into a series of weight categories that are intended to promote fair competition. Differences in performance are partly attributable to differences in body size. Consequently, ratio standards in which a performance variable is simply divided by an anthropometric characteristic such as body mass are often used, although this application is not recommended. This study aimed to obtain allometric models to interpret Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) outputs among male adult athletes from combat sports. Materials and Methods: The sample was composed of 64 participants aged 18-39 years (24.2 ± 4.6 years). Stature and body mass (BM) were measured and air displacement plethysmography used to estimate fat mass and fat-free mass (FFM). Lower-limb lean soft tissue (LL-LST) was derived from dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. WAnT outputs were peak power (WAnT-PP) and mean power (WAnT-MP). Allometric models were obtained from simple and multiple linear regressions using log-transformed variables. Results: Models derived from a single three-dimension descriptor explained a large portion of variance: WAnT-PP (BM: 31.1%; FFM: 54%; LL-LST: 47.2%) and WAnT-MP (BM: 50.1%; FFM: 57.4%; LL-LST: 62.7%). Finally, the best proportional allometric models emerged from the combination of LL-LST and FFM (WAnT-PP: 55%; WAnT-MP: 65%). Conclusions: The relationship between weight categories and performance did not seem to be explained by the basic principles of geometric similarity.

The effects of sports participation on the development of left ventricular mass in adolescent boys.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the contribution of body size, biological maturation, and nonelite sports participation to longitudinal changes of left ventricular mass (LVM) in healthy boys. METHODS: One hundred and ten boys (11.0-14.5 years at baseline) were assessed biannually for 2 years. Stature, body mass, and four skinfolds were measured. Lean body mass (LBM) was estimated. Biological maturation was assessed as years from age at peak height velocity (APHV). Sports participation was assessed by questionnaire. LVM was obtained from M-mode echocardiograms using two-dimensional images. To account for the repeated measures within individual nature of longitudinal data, multilevel random effects regression analyses were used in the analysis. RESULTS: LVM increased on average 42 ± 18 g from 11 to 15 years (P < 0.05) and 76 ± 14 g from 3.5 years pre-APHV to 1.5 years post-APHV (P < 0.05). The multilevel model with the best statistical fit (Model B) showed that changes of 1 cm in stature, 1 year post-APHV, and 1 kg of LBM predicts 4.7, 0.5, and 1 g of LVM (P < 0.05), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Among healthy, male adolescents aged 11-15 years individual differences in growth and biological maturation influence growth of LVM. Subcutaneous adiposity and sports participation were not associated with greater LVM.

Scaling left ventricular mass in adolescent boys aged 11-15 years.

BACKGROUND: Normalizing left ventricular mass (LVM) for inter-individual variation in body size is a central issue in human biology. During the adolescent growth spurt, variability in body size descriptors needs to be interpreted in combination with biological maturation. AIM: To examine the contribution of biological maturation, stature, sitting height, body mass, fat-free mass (FFM) and fat mass (FM) to inter-individual variability in LVM in boys, using proportional allometric modelling. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The cross-sectional sample included 110 boys of 11-15 years (12.9-1.0 years). Stature, sitting height, body mass, cardiac chamber dimensions and LVM were measured. Age at peak height velocity (APHV) was predicted and used as an indicator of biological maturation. Percentage fat was estimated from triceps and subscapular skinfolds; FM and FFM were derived. RESULTS: Exponents for body size descriptors were k = 2.33 for stature, k = 2.18 for sitting height, k = 0.68 for body mass, k = 0.17 for FM and k = 0.80 for FFM (adjusted R(2 )= 19-62%). The combination of body descriptors and APHV increased the explained variance in LVM (adjusted R(2)( )= 56-69%). CONCLUSION: Stature, FM and FFM are the best combination for normalizing LVM in adolescent boys; when body composition is not available, an indicator of biological maturity should be included with stature.

Ventricular mass in relation to body size, composition, and skeletal age in adolescent athletes.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the contribution of chronological age (CA), skeletal age (SA), stature, sitting stature, fat-free mass (FFM), and fat mass (FM) to interindividual variability in left ventricular mass (LVM) in male adolescent roller hockey players using allometric models. DESIGN: Cross sectional. SETTING: Training and competitive sport during adolescence. PARTICIPANTS: Seventy-three Portuguese male roller hockey players aged 14.5 to 16.5 years. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: Stature, sitting stature, body mass, estimated FM and FFM, and SA assessed by the Fels method. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Allometric modeling of LVM assessed in accordance with recommendations of the American Society of Echocardiography. RESULTS: Hockey players (CA: 15.4 ± 0.6 years; SA: 16.4 ± 1.5 years) showed an eccentric remodeling of LV structure within the reference range (ie, 0.24-0.42), a dilated LV chamber, but no LVM increase. Exponents for body size descriptors were 2.69 for stature (R(2) = 27%; P < 0.001), 2.49 for sitting stature (R(2) = 37%; P < 0.001), 0.76 for FFM (R(2) = 31%; P < 0.001), and 0.22 for FM (R(2) = 26%; P < 0.001). The combination of size descriptors with CA and SA increased the explained variance in LVM slightly (26%-45%). CONCLUSIONS: When stature and FM are used for indexing LVM in a sample of adolescent athletes, biological maturity status should also be considered.

Learning effect on an isokinetic knee strength test protocol among male adolescent athletes.

Learning effect occurs when the best performance is not achieved at the earliest trial of a repeated protocol of evaluation. The present study examined, within testing session, the intra-individual variation in an isokinetic strength protocol composed of five reciprocal concentric and eccentric contractions of knee extensors (KE) and knee flexors (KF) among male adolescent swimmers. Additionally, test-retest reliability was determined as intra-individual mean differences between two consecutive testing sessions. The sample included 38 swimmers aged 10.1-13.3 years. A subsample (n = 17) completed a second visit. Isokinetic dynamometry was used to assess concentric and eccentric contractions of KE and KF at an angular velocity of 60°.s-1. The protocol included three preliminary repetitions that were not retained for analysis, a 60-second interval, and five reciprocal maximal concentric contractions (cc). The preceding sequence was repeated for eccentric contractions (ecc) of KE and KF. Multilevel regression confirmed intra-individual and inter-individual levels as significant sources of variance in peak torque (PT) values. Intra-class correlation (ICC) fluctuated between 0.582 and 0.834 and, in general, a substantial percentage of participants need more than three repetitions to attain their best PT: KEcc (36.8%), KEecc (23.7%), KFcc (39.5%), KFecc (18.4%). For the subsample of 17 swimmers who completed a second testing session, intra-individual mean differences of the best PT were trivial or small. In summary, the validity of shorter protocols may be compromised if swimmers do not attain their best peak torque in the first few attempts, and the reliability of a 5-repetition protocol seemed acceptable.

Body composition among long distance runners.

OBJECTIVE: The current study aimed to examine the body composition of adult male ultra-trail runners (UTR) according to their level of participation (regional UTR-R, vs. national UTR-N). METHODS: The sample was composed of 44 adult male UTR (aged 36.5±7.2 years; UTR-R: n=25; UTR-N: n=19). Body composition was assessed by air displacement plethysmography, bioelectrical impedance, and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. In addition, the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) was applied. A comparison between the groups was performed using independent samples t-test. RESULTS: Significant differences between groups contrasting in the competitive level were found for chronological age (in years; UTR-R: 38.8±8.2 vs. UTR-N: 33.5±4.1); body density (in L.kg-1; UTR-R: 1.062±0.015 vs. UTR-N: 1.074±0.009); and fat mass (in kg; UTR-R: 12.7±6.8 vs. UTR-N: 7.6±2.7). CONCLUSION: UTR-N were younger, presented higher values for body density, and had less fat mass, although no significant differences were found for fat-free mass. The current study evidenced the profile of long-distance runners and the need for weight management programs to regulate body composition.

Physiological profile of adult male long-distance trail runners: variations according to competitive level (national or regional).

OBJECTIVE: To describe and identify the importance of different indicators of the aerobic and anaerobic fitness of male ultra-trail runners according to their level of participation (regional or national). METHODS: Forty-four male ultra-trail runners were assessed (36.5±7.2 years). They were classified as regional (n=25) and national (n=19). Wingate test was used to assess the anaerobic pathway. A progressive incremental running test was performed and ventilatory thresholds registered, in parallel to heart rate and lactate concentration at the end of the protocol. Comparison between groups was performed using independent samples t-test. RESULTS: No significant differences were found between outputs derived from Wingate test. For aerobic fitness, while examining absolute values, differences were uniquely significant for the second ventilatory threshold (ultra-trail regional runners: 3.78±0.32L.min-1; ultra-trail national runners: 4.03±0.40L.min-1 p<0.05). Meantime, when aerobic fitness was expressed per unit of body mass, differences were significant for the second ventilatory threshold (ultra-trail regional runners: 50.75±6.23mL.kg-1.min-1; ultra-trail national runners: 57.88±4.64mL.kg-1.min-1 p<0.05) and also maximum volume of oxygen (ultra-trail regional runners: 57.33±7.66mL.kg-1.min-1; ultra-trail national runners: 63.39±4.26mL.kg-1.min-1 p<0.05). CONCLUSION: This study emphasized the importance of expressing physiological variables derived from running protocols per unit of body mass. Also, the second ventilatory threshold appears to be the best and the only aerobic fitness variable to distinguish between trail runners according to competitive level. Maximal oxygen uptake seems of relative interest to distinguish between long distance runners according to competitive level.

Randomized study of the effects of cocoa-rich chocolate on the ventricle-arterial coupling and vascular function of young, healthy adults.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to evaluate and explore the benefits of long-term dark chocolate intake in young, healthy adults by measuring cardiovascular function. METHODS: A randomized study was conducted with 30 healthy participants ages 18 to 27 y. Half of the participants ingested a 20-g dose of lower cocoa chocolate (LCC; ∼55%; 12.6 ± 1.4 mg equivalent of epicatechin/g) and the others ingested a daily dose of 20 g of higher cocoa chocolate (HCC; ∼90%; 18.2 ± 2.6 mg equivalent of epicatechin/g). A baseline evaluation was performed before the participants started ingesting the assigned chocolate for a 30-d period, after which a final evaluation was performed. Each evaluation included heart ultrasonography, carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (PWV) and carotid pulse wave analysis, flow-mediated slowing (FMS), and an analysis of the ventricular-arterial coupling (VAC), which reflects the matching between the aorta and the left ventricle (ratio of arterial elastance to left ventricle elastance). RESULTS: The baseline evaluation presented similar values within normal range in both groups. The positive vascular effects were overall more distinct in the group eating the HCC. No structural modifications on the heart were found after the intervention, notwithstanding cardiac function was improved on certain functional parameters in the HCC group only. A statistically significant improvement was depicted over the brachial and central systolic and pulse pressures in the HCC group, and a trend for improvement in the reflected waves component (Aix) and the FMS was also observed in the HCC, but not in the LCC group. VAC parameters were similar at baseline between groups, but showed a significant improvement in the HCC group after intervention, increasing from 0.674 to 0.719 (P = 0.004), so that the post-intervention VAC was significantly higher in the HCC group than in the LCC group (P < 0.05). In addition, significant variation was observed in both groups regarding arterial and left ventricle elastances, stroke work, and potential energy, with greater mean differences identified in the HCC group. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated that regular consumption of HCC has beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system in young, healthy adults, improving vascular function by reducing central brachial artery pressures and promoting vascular relaxation, and thus enhancing the matching of the arterial system with the left ventricle.

Cardiac remodeling indicators in adolescent athletes.

OBJECTIVE:: The idea that different sports and physical training type results in different cardiac adaptations has been widely accepted. However, this remodelling process among different sport modalities is still not fully understood. Thus, the current study aims to investigate the heart morphology variation associated with a set of different modalities characterized by distinct models of preparation and different methods and demands of training and completion. METHOD:: The sample comprises 42 basketball players, 73 roller hockey players, 28 judo athletes and 21 swimmers. Anthropometry was assessed by a single and experienced anthropometrist and the same technician performed the echocardiographic exams. Analysis of variance was used to study age, body size and echocardiograph parameters as well as different sport athlete's comparison. RESULTS:: Basketball players are taller (F=23.448; p<0.001; ES-r=0.553), heavier (F=6.702; p<0.001; ES-r=0.334) and have a greater body surface area (F=11.896; p<0.001; ES-r=0.427). Basketball and hockey players have larger left auricle diameters compared with judo athletes (F=3.865; p=0.011; ES-r=0.316). Interventricular end-diastolic septal thickness (F=7.287; p<0.001; ES-r=0.347) and left ventricular posterior wall thickness (F=8.038; p<0.001; ES-r=0.362) of the judokas are smaller compared to the mean values of other sports participants. In addition, relative left parietal ventricular wall thickness is lower among swimmers compared with judokas (F=4.127; p=0.008; ES-r=0.268). CONCLUSION:: The major contributors to changes in heart morphology are for the most part associated with sport-specific training and competition and the specific dynamics and adaptive mechanisms imposed by each sport.

Correlation between Epicardial Fat Thickness and Clinical and Anthropometric Variables in an Elderly Population

Abstract Background Epicardial fat (EF) thickness is a marker of visceral adiposity and consequently considered an important predictive marker of cardiovascular and metabolic risk. Objective To describe echocardiographic features of the heart in an elderly population and to study the correlation between EF thickness and clinical and anthropometric variables. Methods A sample of 34 individuals (25 women) aged between 65 and 92 years, who attended a private institution in the central region of Continental Portugal, was analyzed. A standardized sociodemographic questionnaire was applied, and anthropometric assessment, echocardiography and blood pressure measurement were performed in all subjects. A correlational analysis of EF thickness with anthropometric and clinical parameters was performed. The association between variables was tested by Pearson's correlation and point-biserial correlation. A value of p < 0.05 was defined as statistically significant. Results EF thickness was higher in males (6.0 ± 1.4 mm vs 5.2 ± 0.9 mm in females), and ranged from 4 to 9 mm. There were statistically significant correlations between EF thickness and weight (r = 0.4; p = 0.02), body surface area (r = 0.4; p = 0.02), lean mass (r = 0.4; p = 0.03), calf circumference (r = 0.5; p = 0.01) and left ventricular end-diastolic diameter (r = 0.3; p = 0.04). Conclusion EF thickness was higher in males and was significantly correlated with anthropometric parameters of adiposity and left ventricular end-diastolic diameter. Int J Cardiovasc Sci. 2020; [online].ahead print, PP.0-0

Efeitos ecocardiográficos da adesão a exercícios físicos em idosos: resultados da coorte AGA@4life / Echocardiographic effects of adherence to physical exercise in older adults: results from the AGA@4life cohort

INTRODUÇÃO: O envelhecimento associa-se a alterações na estrutura e função do coração, havendo benefícios da prática de exercício físico no retardamento dessas alterações. OBJETIVOS: Caracterizar as alterações ecocardiográficas de uma população idosa submetida à intervenção multidisciplinar incluindo programa de exercício físico adaptado e avaliar as diferenças entre os melhores e piores níveis de adesão à atividade física. MÉTODOS: Estudo de intervenção não randomizado com um grupo de idosos da coorte AGA@4life. Realizaram-se duas avaliações ecocardiográficas, uma basal e outra após a implementação de um programa de intervenção multidisciplinar com um componente de exercício físico por três meses consecutivos. Os participantes foram divididos em dois grupos: grupo 1, com baixa adesão ao programa de exercício físico (< 20% das sessões); grupo 2, com elevada adesão ao programa de exercício físico (> 90% das sessões). RESULTADOS: Na avaliação basal, identificaram-se alterações ecocardiográficas associadas ao envelhecimento ­ 89,2% (n = 33) de casos com fibrose aórtica, 73% (n = 27) de casos com fibrose mitral, 51,2% (n = 19) de casos com regurgitação aórtica e 68% (n = 25) de casos com regurgitação mitral. Após a intervenção, verificaram-se variações significativas em diversos parâmetros funcionais no grupo 2, sobretudo nas velocidades máximas das ondas E' (p = 0,016) e S (p = 0,02) da válvula mitral e da onda E' da válvula tricúspide (p = 0,027). Observaram-se ainda modificações estruturais no grupo 2, nomeadamente redução na espessura parietal relativa (p = 0,033) e no diâmetro diastólico (p = 0,041) do ventrículo esquerdo. CONCLUSÕES: O exercício físico adaptado e implementado no âmbito de um programa de intervenção multidisciplinar constitui uma ferramenta não farmacológica útil para a manutenção de função e estrutura cardíacas adequadas no idoso.

INTRODUCTION: Aging is associated with changes in heart structure and function, and there are benefits of physical exercise in delaying these changes. OBJECTIVES: To characterize the heart of a geriatric cohort at a structural and functional level, and to evaluate the potential cardiac benefits of a personalized exercise intervention program. METHODS: Non-randomized intervention study, including a group of old adults from the AGA@4life cohort. Two echocardiographic evaluations were performed, at baseline and 3 months after the implementation of a multidisciplinary intervention program, integrating the practice of adapted physical exercise. Participants were divided into 2 groups: group 1 with low adherence to the exercise program (< 20% of sessions); group 2 with high adherence to the exercise program (> 90% of sessions). RESULTS: Characteristic heart changes were observed at baseline, mainly at the valvular level, with 89.2% (n = 33) cases of aortic fibrosis, 73% (n = 27) cases of mitral fibrosis, 51.2% (n = 19) cases of aortic regurgitation, and 68% (n = 25) cases of mitral regurgitation. After the intervention, significant changes were observed in several functional parameters in group 2, namely in the maximum velocity of the E' (p = 0.01) and S' (p = 0.02) mitral valve waves, and maximum velocity of the E' tricuspid valve wave (p = 0.02). Positive structural changes were also observed in group 2, namely a reduction in relative wall thickness (p = 0.03) and left ventricular diastolic diameter (p = 0.04). CONCLUSION: Personalized physical exercise implemented as part of a multidisciplinary intervention program is a useful non-pharmacological tool for maintaining adequate cardiac function and structure in the old adult.

Physiological profile of adult male long-distance trail runners: variations according to competitive level (national or regional) / Perfil fisiológico de corredores de trilhas de longa distância adultos do sexo masculino: variações segundo o nível competitivo (nacional ou regional)

ABSTRACT Objective To describe and identify the importance of different indicators of the aerobic and anaerobic fitness of male ultra-trail runners according to their level of participation (regional or national). Methods Forty-four male ultra-trail runners were assessed (36.5±7.2 years). They were classified as regional (n=25) and national (n=19). Wingate test was used to assess the anaerobic pathway. A progressive incremental running test was performed and ventilatory thresholds registered, in parallel to heart rate and lactate concentration at the end of the protocol. Comparison between groups was performed using independent samples t-test. Results No significant differences were found between outputs derived from Wingate test. For aerobic fitness, while examining absolute values, differences were uniquely significant for the second ventilatory threshold (ultra-trail regional runners: 3.78±0.32L.min-1; ultra-trail national runners: 4.03±0.40L.min-1 p<0.05). Meantime, when aerobic fitness was expressed per unit of body mass, differences were significant for the second ventilatory threshold (ultra-trail regional runners: 50.75±6.23mL.kg-1.min-1; ultra-trail national runners: 57.88±4.64mL.kg-1.min-1 p<0.05) and also maximum volume of oxygen (ultra-trail regional runners: 57.33±7.66mL.kg-1.min-1; ultra-trail national runners: 63.39±4.26mL.kg-1.min-1 p<0.05). Conclusion This study emphasized the importance of expressing physiological variables derived from running protocols per unit of body mass. Also, the second ventilatory threshold appears to be the best and the only aerobic fitness variable to distinguish between trail runners according to competitive level. Maximal oxygen uptake seems of relative interest to distinguish between long distance runners according to competitive level.

RESUMO Objetivo Descrever e comparar indicadores de aptidão metabólica em corredores de trilhas de longa distância (ultra trail running) adultos do sexo masculino, de acordo com o nível de competição (regional ou nacional). Métodos Foram avaliados 44 corredores masculinos com média de idade de 36,5±7,2 anos classificados como de nível regional (n=25) ou nacional (n=19). Foi utilizado o teste de Wingate para avaliação da via anaeróbica, enquanto o teste incremental de corrida em esteira também foi realizado para determinar os limiares ventilatórios, o consumo máximo de oxigênio, a frequência cardíaca e a concentração de lactato ao final do protocolo. A comparação entre os grupos foi realizada por estatística teste t para amostras independentes. Resultados As variáveis obtidas do teste Wingate não diferiram de forma significativa entre os grupos. No que diz respeito à aptidão aeróbica, foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre variáveis expressas em valores absolutos no segundo limiar ventilatório (corredores de nível regional: 3,78±0,32L.min-1; corredores de nível nacional: 4,03±0,40L.min-1; p<0,05). Quando considerados os valores expressos por unidade de massa corporal, o segundo limiar ventilatório (corredores de nível regional: 50,75±6,23mL.kg-1.min-1; corredores de nível nacional: 57,88±4,64mL.kg-1.min-1; p<0,05) e o volume máximo de oxigênio (corredores de nível regional: 57,33±7,66mL.kg-1.min-1; corredores de nível nacional: 63,39±4,26mL.kg-1.min-1; p<0,05) também diferiram de forma significativa. Conclusão Este estudo destacou a importância de se expressarem variáveis fisiológicas derivadas de protocolos de corrida por unidade de massa corporal. Além disso, o segundo limiar ventilatório pareceu ser o melhor e único indicador de aptidão aeróbica para a diferenciação de corredores de trilha de longa distância, segundo o nível competitivo. O consumo máximo de oxigênio não é especialmente relevante para distinguir os corredores de trilha de longa distância, segundo o nível competitivo.

Body composition among long distance runners

SUMMARY OBJECTIVE The current study aimed to examine the body composition of adult male ultra-trail runners (UTR) according to their level of participation (regional UTR-R, vs. national UTR-N). METHODS The sample was composed of 44 adult male UTR (aged 36.5±7.2 years; UTR-R: n=25; UTR-N: n=19). Body composition was assessed by air displacement plethysmography, bioelectrical impedance, and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. In addition, the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) was applied. A comparison between the groups was performed using independent samples t-test. RESULTS Significant differences between groups contrasting in the competitive level were found for chronological age (in years; UTR-R: 38.8±8.2 vs. UTR-N: 33.5±4.1); body density (in L.kg-1; UTR-R: 1.062±0.015 vs. UTR-N: 1.074±0.009); and fat mass (in kg; UTR-R: 12.7±6.8 vs. UTR-N: 7.6±2.7). CONCLUSION UTR-N were younger, presented higher values for body density, and had less fat mass, although no significant differences were found for fat-free mass. The current study evidenced the profile of long-distance runners and the need for weight management programs to regulate body composition.

RESUMO OBJETIVO O presente estudo objetivou examinar a composição corporal dos corredores de ultra-trail (UTR) e, adicionalmente, comparar dois grupos de acordo com o nível de participação (Regional vs. Nacional, respectivamente UTR-R e UTR-N). MÉTODOS A amostra foi composta por 44 corredores adultos masculinos (36,5±7,2 anos de idade; UTR-R: n=25; UTR-N: n=19). A composição corporal foi avaliada recorrendo à pletismografia de ar deslocado, bioimpedância elétrica e absorciometria de raios X de dupla energia. Adicionalmente, foi utilizado o Questionário de Frequência Alimentar. A comparação entre grupos foi realizada com base na prova t-student para amostras independentes. RESULTADOS Foram encontradas diferenças significativas por nível de competição para as seguintes variáveis dependentes: idade cronológica (em anos; UTR-R: 38,8±8,2 vs. UTR-N: 33,5±4,1); densidade corporal (em kg/L; UTR-R: 1,062±0,015 L/kg vs. UTR-N: 1,074±0,009); massa gorda (em kg; UTR-R: 12,7±6,8 kg vs. UTR-N: 7,6±2,7). CONCLUSÃO Os UTR-N tendem a ser mais jovens e apresentam valores superiores de densidade corporal e, consequentemente, valores menores de massa gorda, sendo a massa isenta de gordura semelhante entre os grupos. O presente estudo determinou o perfil dos corredores adultos masculinos de longa distância (ultra-trail), realçando a importância de uma cuidadosa regulação da massa corporal.

Cardiac remodeling indicators in adolescent athletes / Indicadores de remodelagem cardíaca em atletas adolescentes

Summary Objective: The idea that different sports and physical training type results in different cardiac adaptations has been widely accepted. However, this remodelling process among different sport modalities is still not fully understood. Thus, the current study aims to investigate the heart morphology variation associated with a set of different modalities characterized by distinct models of preparation and different methods and demands of training and completion. Method: The sample comprises 42 basketball players, 73 roller hockey players, 28 judo athletes and 21 swimmers. Anthropometry was assessed by a single and experienced anthropometrist and the same technician performed the echocardiographic exams. Analysis of variance was used to study age, body size and echocardiograph parameters as well as different sport athlete's comparison. Results: Basketball players are taller (F=23.448; p<0.001; ES-r=0.553), heavier (F=6.702; p<0.001; ES-r=0.334) and have a greater body surface area (F=11.896; p<0.001; ES-r=0.427). Basketball and hockey players have larger left auricle diameters compared with judo athletes (F=3.865; p=0.011; ES-r=0.316). Interventricular end-diastolic septal thickness (F=7.287; p<0.001; ES-r=0.347) and left ventricular posterior wall thickness (F=8.038; p<0.001; ES-r=0.362) of the judokas are smaller compared to the mean values of other sports participants. In addition, relative left parietal ventricular wall thickness is lower among swimmers compared with judokas (F=4.127; p=0.008; ES-r=0.268). Conclusion: The major contributors to changes in heart morphology are for the most part associated with sport-specific training and competition and the specific dynamics and adaptive mechanisms imposed by each sport.

Resumo Objetivo: Os efeitos decorrentes da prática de diferentes modalidades desportivas resultam em padrões divergentes de adaptação cardíaca. A presente pesquisa procura estudar a variação da morfologia do coração associada a um conjunto de modalidades desportivas distintas quanto à natureza do esforço e aos modelos de preparação, incluindo metodologias de treino e sistemas de competição. Método: Foram estudados 42 basquetebolistas, 73 hoquistas, 28 judocas e 21 nadadores. A antropometria foi avaliada por um único e experiente antropometrista e os exames ecocardiográficos foram realizados pelo mesmo operador. Recorreu-se à análise da variância para estudar a variação associada a idade, medidas de tamanho corporal e parâmetros ecocardiográficos, bem como para a comparação entre os atletas de diferentes modalidades desportivas. Resultados: Os basquetebolistas são os atletas mais altos (F=23,448; p<0,001; ES-r=0,553), mais pesados (F=6,702; p<0,001; ES-r=0,334), com maior superfície corporal (F=11,896; p<0,001; ES-r=0,427) e, com os hoquistas, apresentam um diâmetro da aurícula esquerda superior ao dos judocas (F=3,865; p=0,011; ES-r=0,316). A espessura telediastólica do septo interventricular (F=7,287; p<0,001; ES-r=0,347) e da parede posterior do ventrículo esquerdo (F=8,038; p<0,001; ES-r=0,362) dos judocas é inferior à dos outros atletas, mesmo quando controlado para o tamanho corporal. Os nadadores apresentam uma espessura parietal relativa do ventrículo esquerdo superior à dos judocas (F=4,127; p=0,008; ES-r=0,268). Conclusão: As diferentes fontes de variação da morfologia cardíaca prendem-se com as dinâmicas do processo de treino, competição e correspondentemente com os mecanismos adaptativos, sobrepondo-se ao processo de formação desportiva a longo prazo.

Morfologia do ventrículo esquerdo em adolescentes: comparação entre atletas e não atletas / Left ventricular morphology in adolescents: comparison between athletes and non-athletes / Morfología de lo ventrículo izquierdo en adolescentes: comparación entre atletas y no atletas

Introdução: A morfologia do ventrículo esquerdo altera-se com o crescimento e desenvolvimento, durante a infância e adolescência. Contudo, são escassos os estudos comparativos entre não atletas e jovens atletas de elite. Objetivo: Analisar possíveis diferenças na morfologia do ventrículo esquerdo entre jovens atletas de elite e não atletas, do sexo masculino. Métodos: Trinta atletas de elite (15,4±0,6 anos; 68,0±11,3 kg; 175,2±7,5 cm) e 28 adolescentes saudáveis sem experiência com a prática esportiva (15,2±1,3 anos; 62,9± 3,8 kg; 168,8±7,7 cm) foram submetidos a medidas antropométricas (estatura, massa corporal e espessura de dobras cutâneas) e avaliações ecocardiográficas. Resultados: Diferenças estatisticamente significantes foram encontradas nos diâmetros telediastólico e telesistólico do ventrículo esquerdo, na espessura do septo interventricular em diástole, na espessura da parede posterior do ventrículo esquerdo, no diâmetro do átrio esquerdo e na relação entre o diâmetro do átrio esquerdo e o diâmetro da raiz da aorta, com os jovens atletas de elite apresentando valores superiores aos não atletas (P<0,01), mesmo após ajuste pela estatura. Correlações positivas e de moderada magnitude entre a massa do ventrículo esquerdo e a estatura foram encontradas em atletas (r=0,57) e não atletas (r=0,40). Conclusão: Os resultados do presente estudo sugerem que os valores superiores nas medidas da cavidade e de espessura da parede ventricular esquerda, encontrados no coração de jovens atletas de elite não podem ser explicados pela maior estatura, destacando a importância da exploração de modelos alométricos simples e multiplicativos que integrem medidas ...

Introduction: The morphology of the left ventricle changes with growth and development during childhood and adolescence. However, there are few comparative studies between non-athletes and elite young athletes. Objective: To analyze possible differences in left ventricular morphology among male young elite athletes and non-athletes. Methods: Thirty elite athletes male (15.4±0.6 years; 68.0±11.3 kg; 175.2±7.5 cm) and 28 healthy adolescents with no experience with the practice of sports (15.2±1.3 years; 62.9±13.8 kg; 168.8±7.7 cm) undergone anthropometric measurements (height, body weight, and skin fold thickness) and echocardiographic evaluations. Results: Statistically significant differences were found in the telediastolic and telesistolic diameters of the left ventricle, interventricular septum thickness in diastole, thickness of the posterior wall of the left ventricle, the diameter of left atrium and the relationship between the left atrial diameter and the aortic root diameter, with the young elite athletes showing higher values than non-athletes (P<0.01) even after adjusting for height. Positive and moderate magnitude correlations between left ventricular mass and height were found in athletes (r=0.57) and non-athletes (r=0.40). Conclusion: The results of this study suggest that the higher values measured in the cavity and the thickness of the left ventricular wall found in the heart of young elite athletes can not be explained by greater stature, highlighting the importance of exploiting simple allometric and multiplicative models that integrate measures of biological maturation in future investigations. .

Introducción: La morfología del ventrículo izquierdo se altera con el crecimiento y el desarrollo, durante la infancia y adolescencia. Sin embargo, son escasos los estudios comparativos entre no atletas y jóvenes atletas de élite. Objetivo: Analizar posibles diferencias en la morfología del ventrículo izquierdo entre jóvenes atletas de élite y no atletas, del sexo masculino. Métodos: Treinta atletas de élite (15,4±0,6 años; 68,0±11,3 kg; 175,2±7,5 cm) y 28 adolescentes saludables sin experiencia con la práctica deportiva (15,2±1,3 años; 62,9±13,8 kg; 168,8±7,7 cm) fueron sometidos a medidas antropométricas (estatura, masa corporal y espesor de pliegues cutáneos) y evaluaciones ecocardiográficas. Resultados: Fueron encontradas diferencias estadísticamente significativas en los diámetros telediastólico y telesistólico del ventrículo izquierdo, en el espesor del septo interventricular en diástole, en el espesor de la pared posterior del ventrículo izquierdo, en el diámetro del atrio izquierdo y en la relación entre el diámetro del atrio izquierdo y el diámetro de la raíz de la aorta, con los jóvenes atletas de élite presentando valores superiores a los no atletas (P < 0,01), aún después del ajuste por la estatura. Correlaciones positivas y de moderada magnitud entre la masa del ventrículo izquierdo y la estatura fueron encontradas em atletas (r=0,57) y no atletas (r=0,40). Conclusión: Los resultados del presente estudio sugieren que los valores superiores en las medidas de la cavidad y de espesor de la pared ventricular izquierda, encontrados en el corazón de jóvenes atletas de élite no pueden ser explicados pela mayor estatura, destacando la importancia de la explotación de modelos alométricos ...