Safety of anticoagulation use for treatment of portal vein thrombosis in liver cirrhosis and its effect on hospital-based outcomes: an insight from a US nationwide database.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Anticoagulation use for portal vein thrombosis (PVT) in patients with advanced liver disease is controversial. We investigated the effect of anticoagulation on outcomes in patients with PVT with cirrhosis. METHODS: We reviewed National Inpatient Sample data from 2016 to 2018 to identify patients with PVT. Our outcomes were in-hospital mortality, variceal bleeding, hepatic encephalopathy, acute kidney injury (AKI), hepatorenal syndrome (HRS), spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP), sepsis and hospital resource utilisation. RESULTS: We included 60 505 patients with PVT, out of whom 6.63% (4015) were on anticoagulation. The overall mortality in the anticoagulation group was 2.12% compared with 9.72% in the no anticoagulation group. The adjusted odds of mortality were low in the anticoagulation group (adjusted OR (AOR) 0.27, 95% CI 0.15 to 0.46, p<0.001). Patients on anticoagulation had 29% lower odds of variceal bleeding (AOR 0.71, 95% CI 0.53 to 0.96, p=0.03). Lower odds of HRS (AOR 0.56, 95% CI 0.37 to 0.85, p=0.01) and AKI (AOR 0.57, 95% CI 0.48 to 0.69, p<0.001) were also seen in the anticoagulation group. Patients in the anticoagulation group also showed lower odds of SBP (AOR 0.62, 95% CI 0.43 to 0.89, p=0.01) and sepsis (AOR 0.57, 95% CI 0.35 to 0.93, p=0.03). Anticoagulation use resulted in shorter hospital stay by 1.15 days (adjusted length of stay -1.15, 95% CI -1.51 to -0.79, p<0.001). The mean difference in total hospital charges between the anticoagulation and the no anticoagulation group was -$20 034 (95% CI -$27 077 to -$12 991, p<0.001). CONCLUSION: Our analysis found that anticoagulation use is safe and associated with better outcomes in patients with PVT with advanced liver disease.

A review on medical management of inflammatory bowel disease during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic.

The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has engulfed the world and is the highlight of medical community at this time. As humanity fights the battle against this virus, questions are arising regarding the appropriate management of at risk patient populations. The immunocompromised cohort is particularly susceptible to this infection, and we have tried to explore the medical management of one such group, which is composed of individuals with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). There is limited data on the management of IBD during the ongoing pandemic. Several medical societies have put forth suggestions on how to manage immunocompromised patients in order to minimize risk of developing coronavirus disease 2019. This review aims to present available recommendations from experts and provides an insight on preventive and therapeutic strategies that can be implemented for the medical management of patients with IBD. We anticipate that as more information arises, new guidelines will emerge.

Hepatic Encephalopathy in the Hospitalized Patient: A Review for Hospitalists.

Hepatic encephalopathy is a well-recognized complication of decompensated cirrhosis. It is a reversible state of neurocognitive decline, the etiology of which is multifactorial. Diagnosis is predominantly clinical and usually a diagnosis of exclusion. The identification of precipitating factors and their correction is an essential part of the management along with medical therapies such as lactulose and rifaxmin.

Approach to Positive Blood Cultures in the Hospitalized Patient: A Review.

The use of blood cultures as a diagnostic tool has increased over the years along with improvements in techniques and results. The diagnostic dilemma arises when blood cultures are positive and there is possibility of contamination. Hence obtaining blood cultures in the appropriate setting and the interpretation of blood cultures by the hospitalist is imperative to the management of the hospitalized patient.

Pancreatic Cancer Survival Outcomes at a Tertiary Medical Center Based on Sex and Geographic Location.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the survival outcomes of patients with histologically proven primary pancreatic cancer based on geographic location and sex. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective review of medical records from 2009 through 2013 of patients with pancreatic cancer using International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision code 157.9 and International Statistical Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision code C 25.9. The variables extracted included demographics, date of diagnosis, mode of diagnosis, duration, treatment methods, family history, history of chronic pancreatitis, and diabetes mellitus. ZIP codes were used to identify the geographic location of each subject, and rural urban commuting area codes were used to further classify the areas as metropolitan, micropolitan, small town, and rural. Population sizes were classified as metropolitan >50,000, micropolitan 10,000 to 49,999, small town 2500 to 9999, and rural <2500. Descriptive analysis and Kaplan-Meier survival for survival outcomes were performed with statistical significance identified as P < 0.05. RESULTS: A total of 400 medical charts were extracted for review, 301 of which belonged to patients with primary pancreatic cancer. Of the 301 cases, we identified 175 men (58%), 125 women (41%), and 1 missing sex data. There were 280 whites (95%), 8 African Americans (2%), 2 Asian Americans (0.64%), 1 Hispanic American (0.34%) and 1 Native American (0.34%), with a mean age of 63.2 ± 12.6 years. Based on geography, there were 34%, 27%, 20%, and 19% in rural areas, metropolitans, small towns, and micropolitans, respectively. No statistically significant difference was noted in sex on survival outcomes (P = 0.85) or geography (P = 0.62). Additional analysis revealed no statistical significant difference between sexes when stratifying by location (P = 0.96). CONCLUSIONS: There is no difference in survival outcomes of patients with primary pancreatic cancer based on sex or geographic location. Our survival outcomes differ from the national survival outcomes, which reveal that mortality in men is higher than it is in women.

Use of proton pump inhibitors improves outcomes in mild acute pancreatitis: A nationwide cohort study.

Previous studies showed a potential anti-inflammatory effect of proton pump inhibitors (PPI) as well as possible inhibition of pancreatic secretion. This presents the question of their possible use in acute pancreatitis (AP). Current clinical evidence does not address the role of PPI and the present review for possible therapeutic use and safety is lacking. Therefore, our study aims to address the role of PPI in the management of AP and their association with the different outcomes of AP. We queried the Diamond Network through TriNetX-Research Network. This network included 92 healthcare organizations. Patients with mild AP with Bedside Index of Severity in Acute Pancreatitis (BISAP) score of Zero regardless of etiology were divided into 2 cohorts; 1st cohort included patients on PPI, and 2nd cohort included patients not on any PPI. Patients with BISAP score equal to or more than 1 or on PPI prior to the study date were excluded. Two well-matched cohorts were created using 1:1 propensity-scored matching model between cohorts. We compared the incidence of intensive care unit admission, mortality, and other associated complications. A total of 431,571 patients met the inclusion criteria. Of those, 32.9% (n = 142,062) were on PPI, and 67% (n = 289,509) were not on any PPI. After propensity matching, the sample included 115,630 patients on PPI vs 115,630 patients not on PPI. The PPI group had a lower rate of mortality (3.7% vs 4.4%, P < .001), a lower rate of intensive care unit admission (3.9% vs 5.5%, P < .001), a lower rate of necrotizing pancreatitis (1.1% vs 1.9%, P < .001), a lower rate of Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia (3.6% vs 4.9%, P < .001), a lower rate of respiratory failure (2.8% vs 4.2%, P < .001), and a lower rate of acute kidney injury (6.9% vs 10.1%, P < .001). There was no statistical difference in the rate of Clostridium difficile infection between the 2 cohorts (0.9% vs 0.8%, P = .5). The use of PPI in mild AP with a BISAP-score of zero is associated with reduced pancreatitis-related complications and improved mortality. Prospective studies are needed to confirm these findings.

The Use of Pre-Endoscopic Metoclopramide Does Not Prevent the Need for Repeat Endoscopy: A U.S. Based Retrospective Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) can cause upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB), often needing esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD). Second-look endoscopies verify resolution, but cost concerns prompt research on metoclopramide's efficacy compared to erythromycin. METHODS: We analyzed the Diamond Network of TriNetX Research database, dividing UGIB patients with PUD undergoing EGD into three groups: metoclopramide, erythromycin, and no medication. Using 1:1 propensity score matching, we compared repeat EGD, post-EGD transfusion, and mortality within one month in two study arms. RESULTS: Out of 97,040 patients, 11.5% received metoclopramide, 3.9% received erythromycin, and 84.6% received no medication. Comparing metoclopramide to no medication showed no significant difference in repeat EGD (10.1% vs. 9.7%, p = 0.34), transfusion (0.78% vs. 0.86%, p = 0.5), or mortality (1.08% vs. 1.08%, p = 0.95). However, metoclopramide had a higher repeat EGD rate compared to erythromycin (9.4% vs. 7.5%, p = 0.003), with no significant difference in transfusion or mortality. CONCLUSIONS: The need to repeat EGD was not decreased with pre-EGD use of metoclopramide. If a prokinetic agent is to be used prior to EGD, erythromycin shows superior reduction in the need of repeat EGD as compared to metoclopramide.

Epigastric Pain and Dysphagia in a 36-Year-Old Man Due to Primary Esophageal Small Cell Carcinoma.

BACKGROUND Small cell carcinoma is an aggressive malignant neuroendocrine tumor that most commonly occurs in the lung. Primary small cell carcinoma of the esophagus (PSCCE) is rare and is an aggressive malignancy with poor prognosis and no clear management guidelines. This report describes the case of a 36-year-old man presenting with epigastric pain, dysphagia, and melena due to a primary esophageal small cell carcinoma. CASE REPORT A 36-year-old presented to the Emergency Department (ED) with epigastric pain associated with food intake. Initial workup was unremarkable, and a presumed clinical diagnosis of reflux esophagitis and peptic strictures was made, prompting empiric treatment with anti-secretory therapies. Despite these therapies, he presented to the emergency room with progressively worsening dysphagia. Endoscopic examination (EGD) revealed a large necrotic mass, and computed tomography (CT) imaging revealed liver metastasis. Biopsies from both the liver and esophageal masses confirmed small cell carcinoma. His clinical course was complicated by a broncho-esophageal fistula, leading to massive hemoptysis, necessitating intubation. Unfortunately, his condition deteriorated rapidly, and he chose to pursue hospice care. He died 3 months after his initial presentation. CONCLUSIONS This report has presented a rare case of primary esophageal small cell carcinoma and our approach to management. We highlight the importance of early diagnosis, supported by histopathology, and the need for management guidelines.

SARS-CoV-2 Infection Is an Independent Risk Factor for Decompensation in Cirrhosis Patients.

BACKGROUND: SARS-CoV-2 causes varied gastrointestinal symptoms. Cirrhosis patients face higher mortality rates from it, especially those with decompensated cirrhosis. This study examines SARS-CoV-2's impact on decompensation in previously compensated cirrhotic patients. METHODS: We analyzed the Global Collaborative Network, comprising 98 healthcare organizations across sixteen countries, using TriNetX's deidentified research database. Compensated cirrhosis patients were split into two groups: one with SARS-CoV-2-positive patients and another testing negative. Using a 1:1 propensity score matching model based on baseline characteristics and comorbidities, we created comparable cohorts. We then assessed decompensation, mortality, and GI bleed at 1 and 3 months. RESULTS: Out of 252,631 identified compensated cirrhosis patients, 27.3% (69,057) tested SARS-CoV-2-positive, while 72.6% (183,574) remained negative. Post PSM, 61,963 patients were in each group. SARS-CoV-2-positive patients showed significantly higher decompensation rates (4.4% vs. 1.9% at 1 month; 6% vs. 2.6% overall). Rates of complications, like ascites, SBP, HE, and HRS, increased notably. Mortality (2.5% vs. 1.7% at 1 month; 3.6% vs. 2.7% at 3 months) and GI bleed (1.3% vs. 0.9% at 1 month; 1.9% vs. 1.2% at 3 months) were also elevated in SARS-CoV-2 patients. CONCLUSIONS: SARS-CoV-2 increases decompensation over 2-fold in compensated cirrhosis patients and raises mortality and increases rates of complications at 1 and 3 months.

The Use of Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Does Not Increase the Risk of Pancreatic Cancer: A U.S.-Based Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: GLP-1 RAs are widely used for T2DM treatment due to their cardiorenal and metabolic benefits. This study examines the risk of pancreatic cancer with GLP-1 RA use in patients with T2DM. METHODS: We analyzed TriNetX's deidentified research database using the U.S. Collaborative Network comprising 62 healthcare organizations across the U.S.A. Patients with T2DM were split into two cohorts: one receiving GLP-1 RAs, and one not receiving GLP-1 RAs. We excluded patients with known risk factors for pancreatic cancer, including pancreatic cysts, a personal or family history of BRCA1, BRCA2, CDKN2A, KRAS, MEN1, MLH1, MSH2, NOTCH1, PALB2, PMS2, and PRSS1S genes, family history of pancreatic cancer, and VHL syndrome. Using a 1:1 propensity score-matching model based on baseline characteristics and comorbidities, we created comparable cohorts. We then compared the rate of pancreatic cancer between the two cohorts at a 7-year interval. RESULTS: Out of 7,146,015 identified patients with T2DM, 10.3% were on a GLP-1 RA and 89.7% were not. Post-PSM, 721,110 patients were in each group. Patients on GLP-1 RAs had a 0.1% risk compared to a 0.2% risk of pancreatic cancer in the 7-year timeframe. CONCLUSION: The use of GLP-1 RAs in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) does not appear to substantially elevate the risk of pancreatic cancer; in fact, it may potentially exert a protective effect.

Mushroom Sign: Complete Esophageal Obstruction After Esophageal Variceal Band Ligation With Successful Removal of Variceal Band.

Esophageal varices due to portal hypertension are treated with endoscopic variceal band ligation (EVBL), a minimally invasive procedure with potential complications, such as pain, bleeding, and stricture formation. Rarely, complete esophageal obstruction can occur secondary to edema of the mucosa. Most cases can be managed conservatively, but intervention is necessary for severe symptoms with a risk for aspiration and airway compromise. Since EVBL is such a common procedure, it is important for clinicians to be aware of this rare but severe complication. An 80-year-old woman presented with severe dysphagia and chest discomfort after a recent EVBL. Esophagogastroduodenoscopy revealed esophageal mucosal edema and complete obstruction of the esophageal lumen. The band was removed with a loop cutter with subsequent balloon dilation to relieve the obstruction.

Scurvy: Rediscovering a Forgotten Disease.

Scurvy is a nutritional deficiency caused by low vitamin C levels that has been described since ancient times. It leads to a varied presentation, affecting multiple organ systems due to its role in the biochemical reactions of connective tissue synthesis. Common manifestations include gingival bleeding, arthralgias, skin discoloration, impaired wound healing, perifollicular hemorrhage, and ecchymoses. Although there has been a dramatic reduction in the prevalence of scurvy in modern times owing to vitamin C supplementation and intake, sporadic cases still occur. In developed countries, it is mainly diagnosed in the elderly and malnourished individuals and is associated with alcoholism, low socio-economic status, and poor dietary habits. Scurvy has been an unusual cause of gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding among other GI manifestations. It can be adequately treated and prevented via vitamin C supplementation.

The COVID-19 Infection Resulted Delayed Esophagogastroduodenoscopy in Patients Admitted with Variceal Bleeding: Hospital-Based Outcomes of a National Database.

During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, most healthcare services, including inpatient and outpatient procedures, got delayed. We reviewed the effect of COVID-19 infection on the timing of esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) in variceal bleeding patients and analyzed the complications of delayed EGD. Using the National Inpatient Sample (NIS) 2020, we identified patients admitted for variceal bleeding with COVID-19 infection. We performed a multivariable regression analysis and adjusted it for patient and hospital-related variables. The International Classification of Disease Tenth Revision (ICD-10) codes were used for patient selection. We measured the effect of COVID-19 on the timing of EGD and further analyzed the effect of delayed EGD on hospital-based outcomes. A total of 49,675 patients diagnosed with variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding were analyzed, out of which 915 (1.84%) were COVID-19 positive. Variceal bleeding patients who were COVID-positive had a significantly lower rate of EGD performed within the first 24 h of admission (36.1% vs. 60.6% p = 0.001) compared to the patients who tested negative for COVID-19. The performance of EGD within 24 h of admission resulted in a decrease in all-cause mortality by 70% (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 0.30, 95% CI 0.12-0.76, p = 0.01) compared to EGD after 24 h. A significant decrease was noted in the odds of ICU admission rate (AOR 0.37, 95% CI 0.14-0.97, p = 0.04) in patients who got EGD within the first 24 h of admission. No difference in odds of sepsis (AOR 0.44, 95% CI 0.15-1.30, p = 0.14) and vasopressor use (AOR 0.34, 95% CI 0.04-2.87, p = 0.32) was seen in COVID positive vs. COVID negative group. The hospital mean length of stay (2.14 days, 95% CI 4.35-0.06, p = 0.06), mean total charges ($51,936, 95% CI $106,688-$2816, p = 0.06), and total cost (11,489$, 95% CI 30,380$-7402$, p = 0.23) was similar in both COVID-positive and -negative groups. In our study, we found that the presence of COVID-19 infection in variceal bleeding patients resulted in a significant delay in EGD compared to COVID-negative patients. This delay in EGD resulted in increased all-cause mortality and intensive care unit admissions.

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Pancreas Disease: The Unsung Disease.

Non-alcoholic fatty pancreas disease (NAFPD) is a relatively new and emerging disease that is increasingly diagnosed yearly, like non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). It is associated especially with metabolic syndrome and obesity. As awareness of pancreatic steatosis and its clinical implications increase, it is diagnosed more frequently. The researchers have explained the clinical importance of NAFPD and the diseases it causes, such as pancreatitis, pancreatic insufficiency, and pancreatic cancer. Although the definitive treatment is not yet established, the primary treatment approach is weight loss since NAFPD is associated with metabolic syndrome as well as obesity. Although pharmacological agents, such as oral hypoglycemic agents, have been investigated in animal experiments, studies on humans have not been conducted. Since the research on NAFPD is still insufficient, it is a subject that needs to be investigated, and further studies are needed to explore its pathophysiology, clinical impact, and its management.

Liver injury on admission linked to worse outcomes in COVID-19: an analysis of 14,138 patients.

Background: Infection with the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which can result in hepatic inflammation and injury that varies from mild to severe and potentially acute fulminant liver injury, may be associated with poor outcomes. Our aims were to: (I) assess baseline clinical and demographic characteristics in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) who did and did not have abnormalities in liver chemistries [alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and total bilirubin (Tbili)] and (II) evaluate associations between abnormalities in liver chemistries and the primary outcomes of in-hospital death, intubation, and hospital length of stay (LOS). Methods: In this nationwide retrospective cohort study of 14,138 patients, we analyzed associations between abnormalities in liver chemistries (ALT, AST, ALP, and Tbili) and mortality, intubation, and prolonged hospital LOS in patients with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19. We used Pearson's chi-squared tests to detect significant differences in categorical variables for patients with and without abnormal liver chemistries. Welch's two-sample t-tests were used to make comparisons of liver chemistry (ALT, AST, ALP, Tbili) and serum albumin results. All other continuous variables were analyzed using independent samples t-tests. A P value of <0.05 was considered significant. Results: Propensity score matching demonstrated that abnormalities in liver chemistries at admission are significantly associated with increased risk for mortality (RR 1.70) and intubation (RR 1.44) in patients with COVID-19. Elevated AST is the liver chemistry abnormality associated with the highest risk for mortality (RR 2.27), intubation (RR 2.12), and prolonged hospitalization (RR 1.19). Male gender, pre-existing liver disease, and decreased serum albumin are also significantly associated with severe outcomes and death in COVID-19. Conclusions: Routine liver chemistry testing should be implemented and used for risk stratification at the time of COVID-19 diagnosis.

Lymphocytic Esophagitis: A Case Series of Esophageal Disease with Increasing Frequency.

BACKGROUND: Lymphocytic esophagitis (LE) is a poorly understood clinical finding that has been increasingly identified in the last decade. Previous studies proposed increased frequency of LE in elderly females, as well as associations with smoking and pediatric Crohn's disease. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to determine the patient characteristics and clinical features of our adult LE patients. As inflammation in the esophagus has been linked to cancer, this review also describes this association. However, there are no reported cases of malignant transformation in those with underlying lymphocytic esophagitis. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed records for patients at the University of Missouri Hospital- Columbia (located in the USA) who had a histopathological diagnosis of LE. Cases of LE were identified using the pathology reporting system at the University of Missouri Hospital for esophageal biopsy specimens for the above-mentioned period. RESULTS: The data of a total of 20 adult cases with esophageal biopsy specimens consistent with LE were included. CONCLUSION: LE seems to be a benign but disturbing clinical problem and should be remembered in elderly females complaining of dysphagia or refractory reflux symptoms. It has similar endoscopic findings of eosinophilic esophagitis with rings and esophagitis. Smoking and hiatal hernia are common risk factors. The majority of LE patients can respond to proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy. Endoscopic dilations and steroid therapy should be considered for PPI nonresponder LE patients.

Effect of acute kidney injury on hospital-based outcomes in patients admitted for variceal hemorrhage. Analysis of national inpatient sample database.

Introduction: Acute kidney injury (AKI) is known to be a marker of mortality in patients with cirrhosis and variceal hemorrhage. Aim: To study the effect of AKI on hospital-based outcomes in patients with variceal hemorrhage. Material and methods: We obtained data from the National Inpatient Sample for the years 2016-2018. Study inclusion criteria comprised adult variceal hemorrhage patients who also had AKI. The primary outcome of interest was in-hospital mortality. Secondary outcomes were length of stay, hospital charge, shock, blood transfusion, and ICU admission. We also determined the independent predictors of mortality in variceal hemorrhage patients using multivariate regression analysis. We used 2 different methods: multivariate logistic regression and propensity matching to adjust for confounders. Results: The number of people included in this study was 124,430, of whom 32,315 (26%) had AKI. Mortality in variceal hemorrhage patients with AKI was 30.4% in comparison to 4.8% without AKI. The presence of AKI was associated with increased odds of mortality (AOR = 8.28, 95% CI: 7.45-9.20, p < 0.01), ICU admissions (AOR = 4.76, 95% CI: 4.42-5.13, p < 0.01), blood transfusion (AOR = 1.24, 95% CI: 1.15-1.32, p < 0.01), and shock (AOR = 3.41, 95% CI 3.07-3.79, p < 0.01). The patients with AKI also had increased length of stay and hospital charges. Higher Charlson co-morbidity index, African American race, and being admitted to large sized hospital were independently associated with increased mortality. Conclusions: After analyzing the combined NIS dataset of 2016-2018, we concluded that patients admitted with variceal hemorrhage who has AKI are prone to adverse hospital outcomes.

July effect in clinical outcomes of esophagogastroduodenoscopy performed at teaching hospitals in the United States.

Background: Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) is a common procedure used for both diagnosis and treatment, but carries risks such as bleeding and perforation. The "July effect"-described as increased complication rates during the transition of new trainees-has been studied in other procedures, but has not been thoroughly evaluated for EGD. Methods: We used the National Inpatient Sample database for 2016 to 2018 to compare outcomes in EGD performed between July to September and April to June. Results: Approximately 0.91 million patients in the study received EGD between July to September (49.35%) and April to June (50.65%), with no significant differences between the two groups in terms of age, gender, race, income, or insurance status. Of the 911,235 patients, 19,280 died during the study period following EGD, 2.14% (July-September) vs 1.95% (April-June), with an adjusted odds ratio of 1.09 (P < 0.01). The adjusted total hospitalization charge was $2052 higher in July-September ($81,597) vs April to June ($79,023) (P < 0.005). The mean length of stay was 6.8 days (July-September) vs 6.6 days (April-June) (P < 0.001). Conclusions: The results of this study are reassuring as the July effect on inpatient outcomes for EGDs was not significantly different according to our study. We recommend seeking prompt treatment and improving new trainee training and interspecialty communication for better patient outcomes.

Immunological and Metabolic Alterations in Esophageal Cancer.

Esophageal cancer is one of the most common types of gastrointestinal malignancies that is encountered. It has a global distribution and affects males and females, and is linked to significant morbidity and mortality. The mechanisms underlying pathophysiology are multifactorial and involve the interaction of genetic and environmental factors. This review article describes the immunological and metabolic changes that occur in malignancy of the esophagus.

The 8th Wonder of the Cancer World: Esophageal Cancer and Inflammation.

Esophageal cancer is a devastating malignancy which can be detected at an early stage but is more often diagnosed as an advanced process. It affects both men and women and inflicts the young and the elderly. There are multiple underlying factors involved in the pathogenesis of this cancer including inflammation. The interplay of these factors promotes inflammation through various mechanisms including the recruitment of pro-inflammatory cells, mediators such as cytokines, reactive oxygen species, and interleukins, among others. The presentation can vary widely with one of the most notable symptoms being dysphagia. Diagnosis is based on clinical symptomatology, imaging and endoscopy with biopsy. Once the diagnosis has been established, treatment and prognosis are based on the stage of the disease. This review outlines esophageal cancer and its link to inflammation in relation to pathogenesis, along with clinical features, diagnosis and treatment.