Fiscal space for Health in the Americas: is economic growth sufficient?

OBJECTIVE: In 2014, the member countries of the Pan American Health Organization signed the Strategy for Universal Access to Health and Universal Health Coverage. In it, they committed to increasing public expenditure on health until reaching the benchmark of 6% of gross domestic product (GDP). The objective of this paper is to determine, for each country in the Region, whether they can reach this target through economic growth alone and, if so, how long it would take. METHODS: Using World Bank and World Health Organization data, elasticity of public health expenditure (PHE) with respect to GDP was estimated for each country. Real economic growth and International Monetary Fund projections for 2016-2021 were used to project the expenditure series and determine the year each country would reach 6% of GDP. RESULTS: Six countries have already reached the 6% target. The Latin American and Caribbean countries that have achieved it are those that have single health systems, based on universal access and coverage. If current prioritization of PHE is maintained, three countries could reach the target in the next decade. Four more countries would reach it before mid-century, 10 in the second half of the century, and one would have to wait until the next century. Finally, 13 countries would never reach the proposed target. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis demonstrates the limitations of economic growth as a source of fiscal space. Other sources will need to be tapped, such as increased tax collection, specific health taxes, and greater efficiency in public spending, which will require social and political dialogue in the countries regarding their commitment to universal health principles.

[Fiscal space for health in HondurasEspaço fiscal para saúde em Honduras]. / Espacio fiscal para salud en Honduras.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze sources of fiscal space for the health sector in Honduras, in the context of sectoral reform, with a commitment to achieving the target of public expenditure on health equivalent to 6% of gross domestic product (GDP). METHODS: An analysis of baseline conditions and sources of fiscal space was conducted on the basis of a literature review and secondary data. The size of each source was estimated from official data, international statistics, and previous studies. In parallel to this study, political feasibility was analyzed and an online survey was administered to key actors. RESULTS: Estimates of baseline conditions for economic growth show that other sources must be identified in order to generate new resources. The recent tax reform limits the political feasibility of creating new taxes, except for "sin taxes", that could be used exclusively to fund health. Social protection reform paves the way to explore measures that could make resources available by improving efficiency in the sector. One limitation on public expenditure based on social security contributions is the ceiling on taxable income, notwithstanding acceleration in the formalization of the labor market. CONCLUSIONS: Honduras can advance towards achieving the target of public expenditure on health equivalent to 6% of GDP with the support of plans for sectoral reform, but its options are limited by the recent tax reform. The reform of social protection in health should consider additional available resources so as not to jeopardize implementation of the reform.

OBJETIVO: Analisar as fontes de espaço fiscal para saúde em Honduras no contexto da reforma do setor, com o compromisso de alcançar uma meta de gasto público em saúde de 6% do produto interno bruto (PIB). MÉTODOS: Foi realizada uma análise da situação básica e das fontes de espaço fiscal com base em uma revisão da literatura e dados secundários. Foi estimado o tamanho das fontes com dados oficiais, estatísticas internacionais e estudos prévios. Para complementar o estudo, foi realizada uma análise da viabilidade política e uma pesquisa online com os principais interessados diretos. RESULTADOS: As estimativas da situação básica de crescimento econômico indicam que é necessário identificar novas fontes para geração de recursos. A reforma tributária recente restringe a viabilidade política de criar impostos, exceto impostos pecuniários cuja arrecadação poderia ser alocada exclusivamente à saúde. A reforma da previdência social abre caminho para examinar medidas para liberar recursos com a melhoria da eficiência do setor. Uma limitante no caso do gasto público proveniente da previdência social é o teto da base contributiva, independente de uma aceleração na formalização das relações de trabalho. CONCLUSÕES: Honduras pode procurar alcançar uma meta de gasto público em saúde de 6% do PIB que respalde os planos de reforma setorial, mas as opções são limitadas pela recente reforma tributária. A reforma da previdência social em saúde deve considerar os recursos adicionais que terá à disposição para não comprometer a própria implementação.

[Out-of-pocket health spending: the case of Chile, 1997 and 2007]. / El gasto de bolsillo en salud: el caso de Chile, 1997 y 2007.

OBJECTIVE: Determine the impact, characteristics, and changes in out-of-pocket health spending of households in Chile in 1997 and 2007. METHODS: A descriptive econometric study was conducted based on household surveys with cross-sectional information on spending in two years-1997 and 2007-for Greater Santiago. The evolution of indicators of per capita household spending by quintile was reviewed. The method proposed by the World Health Organization was used for econometric analysis of the determinants of out-of-pocket spending and catastrophic spending. The Gini indices were also calculated to analyze equity. RESULTS: Out-of-pocket health spending in the households of Greater Santiago increased significantly (39.5% per capita). The ratio of health spending in quintile 5 compared to quintile 1 decreased, but the increase in spending was less in quintile 5. In 2007, out-of-pocket spending was still determined by the presence of risk groups: under 5 years and, although to a lesser extent, over 65 years of age. Catastrophic spending decreased slightly and the presence of older adults continues to increase this risk. The presence of women of childbearing age tends to minimize out-of-pocket spending. CONCLUSIONS: Out-of-pocket health spending in the households is high and has increased. It continues to have a significant influence on inequality. The effects of out-of-pocket spending containment programs such as AUGE are evident, but new financial protection policies that address the problem are needed.

Out-of-pocket expenditure and financial protection in the Chilean health care system-A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Protection against financial risk due to medical spending is an explicit health guarantee within Chile's AUGE health reform. This paper seeks to analyze the degree to which out-of-pocket expenditure still expose Chilean households to financial catastrophe and impoverishment, and to explore inequalities in financial protection. METHODS: A systematic literature review was conducted to identify empirical studies analyzing financial protection in Chile. The search included databases as well as grey literature, i.e. governmental and institutional webpages. The indicators are based on the conceptual framework of financial protection, as portrayed in the World Health Report 2013. RESULTS: We identify n=16 studies that fulfill the inclusion criteria. Empirical studies indicate that 4% of Chilean households faced catastrophic health expenditure defined as out-of-pocket expenditure exceeding 30% of household's capacity to pay, while less than 1% were pushed into poverty in 2012. In contrast to prior studies, recent data report that even publicly insured who should be fully protected from co-payments were affected by catastrophic health expenditure. Also in the private insurance system financial catastrophe is a common risk. CONCLUSION: Despite health reform efforts, financial protection is insufficient and varies to the disadvantage of the poor and vulnerable groups. More research is required to understand why current mechanisms are not as effective as expected and to enable according reforms of the insurance system.

Financiamiento de redes integradas de servicios de salud

[RESUMEN]. Los países de América Latina y el Caribe necesitan aumentar sus recursos públicos en salud para ampliar el acceso equitativo y eficiente a la salud. El aumento debe financiar un modelo específico que ha mostrado evidencia de eficacia, como el de redes integradas de servicios de salud (RISS) basadas en atención primaria de salud. La literatura global no ha prestado suficiente atención al financiamiento a las RISS; más bien se ha focalizado en establecimientos y agentes aislados, así como en mecanismos específicos. Sin embargo, en la Región de las Américas su desarrollo es una necesidad desde hace años. Una RISS es un conjunto de organizaciones de salud que ofrece intervenciones y servicios de salud coordinados a una población bajo su cargo y asume la responsabilidad de salud y económica en el logro de mejores resultados de salud. Un sistema de pago a una RISS debe ir dirigido a promover la integralidad de la atención y a fomentar un enfoque centrado en el ciclo de vida de las personas, la articulación y la coordinación de servicios. El presupuesto poblacional ajustado por riesgos se muestra como un mecanismo posible y potente para apoyar el logro de los objetivos. Su desarrollo requiere reconocer que la forma de financiamiento no responderá por sí sola a los desafíos y que se necesita, a la vez, de la planificación y de la gestión sanitarias. Se requiere abordar los desafíos técnicos, políticos e institucionales para tener éxito en este esfuerzo, que a su vez debe estar inserto en el proceso global de transformación de los sistemas de salud hacia la salud universal.

[ABSTRACT]. The countries of Latin America and the Caribbean need to increase their public resources in health to expand equitable and efficient access to health. The increase should finance a specific model with proven effectiveness, such as integrated health service networks (IHSN) based on primary health care. The global literature has not paid sufficient attention to financing IHSN; rather, it has focused on isolated facilities and agents, as well as on specific mechanisms. However, in the Region of the Americas, their development has been a necessity for years. An IHSN is a group of health organizations that offers coordinated health interventions and services to a population under their charge and assumes health and economic responsibility for achieving better health outcomes. A system of payment to an IHSN should be aimed at promoting the integrality of care and encouraging a focus on the life cycle of individuals, the articulation and the coordination of services. The risk-adjusted population budget is a possible and powerful mechanism to support the achievement of the objectives. Its development requires the recognition that the type of financing alone will not respond to the challenges and that there is a need for both health planning and health management. The technical, political and institutional challenges need to be addressed to succeed in this effort, which in turn must be embedded in the overall process of transforming health systems towards universal health.

Building Long-Term Care Policies in Latin America: New Programs in Chile.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about long-term care policies in developing regions. Latin America is one of those regions. In less than 20 years, it will surpass Europe's elderly population. At that point, Chile will be the country with the largest share of elderly population in the region. For that reason, long-term care pilot programs have been implemented in recent years. OBJECTIVE: This article describes the long-term care policy in Chile, analyzed according to the international experience. METHOD: National directors of these programs were asked to complete questionnaires with a description of each, and the results of the past year. This information was compared with interviews to experts and official information available online. RESULTS: Programs follow the international trends, although they are underfinanced and lack the necessary mechanisms to control service quality. CONCLUSION: It is suggested that budgets should be increased, and there should be higher requirements for caregiver training. Also, mechanisms for quality control should be established, and policies should be evaluated for formal direct hiring through a cash-for-care system.

Mortality outcomes in hospitals with public, private not-for-profit and private for-profit ownership in Chile 2001-2010.

UNLABELLED: Public, private not-for-profit (PNFP) and private for-profit (PFP) hospitals may have different behaviour and performance in different indicators such as health outcomes, cost-efficiency and quality. Chile has a mixed healthcare system both in financing and service delivery. The public National Health Fund (Fondo Nacional de Salud) covers 76% of the population-poorer and with higher health risks-whereas private health insurers cover 16% of the population-richer and with lower health risks. The aim of the study was to analyse the in-patient mortality outcomes by hospital ownership in Chile. METHODS: We use hospital discharge data in Chile for the period 2001-10 with a total of 16,205,314 discharges in 20 public, 6 PNFP and 15 PFP hospitals. We analyse in-patient mortality considering all diagnoses and a subsample considering only myocardial infarction and stroke diagnoses. Using a probit regression, we estimate how hospital ownership explains in-patient mortality controlling for other confounding variables like health and socioeconomic status, and hospital characteristics. RESULTS: The discharge condition was reported as death in 3.5% of the public hospitals' discharges, 1.3% in PNFP and 0.7% in PFP. PNFP and PFP hospitals show a lower risk of in-hospital mortality for all diagnoses, myocardial infarction and stroke in comparison with public hospitals. DISCUSSION: The question about which type of hospital ownership performs better in Chile remains open. Policy decisions regarding health service provision requires more evidence explaining differences by ownership. Better controls for health risk and hospital characteristics are suggested to address these differences in hospital performance.

Espacio fiscal para la salud en Honduras / Fiscal space for health in Honduras

Objetivo. Analizar las fuentes de espacio fiscal para el sector salud enHonduras en un contexto de reforma del sector, con el compromiso de alcanzar una meta de gasto público en salud de 6% del producto interno bruto(PIB).Métodos.Se realizó un análisis de la condición básica y las fuentes de espacio fiscal en base a una revisión bibliográfica y datos secundarios. Se estimó el tamaño de las fuentes condatos oficiales, estadísticas internacionales estudios previos. De manera complementaria al estudio, serealizó un análisis de la factibilidad política y se aplicó una encuesta en línea a actores clave. Resultados. Las estimaciones de la condición básica de crecimiento económico muestran que es necesario identificar otras fuentes para poder genera rnuevos recursos. La recientere forma tributaria limita la factibilidad política degenera rnuevos impuestos, a excepción de los impuestos al pecado cuya recaudación se podría asignar exclusivamente a salud. La reforma de protección social abre el camino para explorar medidas que liberen recursos con mejoras en la eficiencia del sector. Una limitante en el caso del gasto1 Universidad del Pacífico de Perú, Lima, Perú. Enviar la correspondencia a Lorena Prieto Toledo, a.prietotoledo@up.edu.pe2 Organización Panamericana de la Salud, Washington DC, Estados Unidos de América.Manuscrito recibido el 1 de junio de 2017. Aceptado para publicación, tras revisión, el 22 de agosto de 2017. público proveniente de las eguridad social es el techo de la base contributiva, independiente de una aceleración en la formalización laboral. Conclusiones. Honduras puede avanzar en lograr la meta de un gasto público en salud de 6% del PIB que respalde los planes de reforma sectorial, pero sus opciones se ven limitadas por la reciente reforma tributaria. La reforma de protección social en salud debe considerar los recursos adicionales que tendrá disponibles para no poner en riesgo su implementación...(AU)

Fiscal space for Health in the Americas: is economic growth sufficient?

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. In 2014, the member countries of the Pan American Health Organization signed the Strategy for Universal Access to Health and Universal Health Coverage. In it, they committed to increasing public expenditure on health until reaching the benchmark of 6% of gross domestic product (GDP). The objective of this paper is to determine, for each country in the Region, whether they can reach this target through economic growth alone and, if so, how long it would take. Methods. Using World Bank and World Health Organization data, elasticity of public health expenditure (PHE) with respect to GDP was estimated for each country. Real economic growth and International Monetary Fund projections for 2016–2021 were used to project the expenditure series and determine the year each country would reach 6% of GDP. Results. Six countries have already reached the 6% target. The Latin American and Caribbean countries that have achieved it are those that have single health systems, based on universal access and coverage. If current prioritization of PHE is maintained, three countries could reach the target in the next decade. Four more countries would reach it before mid-century, 10 in the second half of the century, and one would have to wait until the next century. Finally, 13 countries would never reach the proposed target. Conclusions. This analysis demonstrates the limitations of economic growth as a source of fiscal space. Other sources will need to be tapped, such as increased tax collection, specific health taxes, and greater efficiency in public spending, which will require social and political dialogue in the countries regarding their commitment to universal health principles.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. En 2014, los países miembros de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud firmaron la Estrategia para el acceso universal a salud y cobertura universal de salud. En ella, se comprometieron a aumentar el gasto público en salud hasta alcanzar la meta referencial de 6% del producto interno bruto (PIB). El objetivo de este trabajo es determinar, para cada uno de los países de la Región, si pueden alcanzar esta meta solo con crecimiento económico y, en el caso de ser posible, en qué plazos lo harían. Métodos. Se utilizaron datos del Banco Mundial y de la Organización Mundial de Salud y se estimaron las elasticidades del gasto público en salud con respecto al PIB para cada país. Con base en el crecimiento económico real y el proyectado por el Fondo Monetario Internacional 2016–2021, se proyectó la serie de gasto y se determinó el año en el que alcanzarían 6% del producto. Resultados. Seis países ya han alcanzado la meta de 6%. Los países de América Latina y el Caribe que la han logrado son aquellos que mantienen sistemas de salud únicos, basados en acceso y cobertura universales. Si se mantiene la priorización actual del gasto público en salud, tres países podrían alcanzar la meta en la próxima década. Otros cuatro países lo harían antes de medio siglo, diez en la segunda mitad y uno tendría que esperar hasta la próxima centuria. Por último, 13 países nunca alcanzarían la meta propuesta. Conclusiones. Este análisis demuestra las limitaciones del crecimiento económico como fuente de espacio fiscal. Será necesario recurrir a otras fuentes como mayor recaudación tributaria, impuestos específicos en salud y mayor eficiencia en el gasto público, lo que demandará un diálogo social y político de los países en torno al compromiso con los principios de la salud universal.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Em 2014, os Estados Membros da Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde firmaram a Estratégia para o acesso universal à saúde e cobertura universal de saúde com a qual se comprometeram a aumentar o gasto público em saúde até atingir a meta de referência de 6% do produto interno bruto (PIB). O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar se cada um dos países da Região conseguiria atingir esta meta apenas com o crescimento econômico e, neste caso, em que prazo. Métodos. O estudo se baseou em dados obtidos do Banco Mundial e da Organização Mundial de Saúde (OMS). Foi estimada a elasticidade do gasto público em saúde com relação ao PIB para cada país. A partir do crescimento econômico real e do crescimento projetado pelo Fundo Monetário Internacional para o período 2016–2021, foi feita a projeção dos gastos e determinado o ano em que seriam alcançados 6% do PIB. Resultados. Seis países já atingiram a meta de 6%. Os países da América Latina e Caribe que atingiram esta meta são os que têm um sistema de saúde único baseado no acesso e cobertura universais. Se for mantida a priorização atual do gasto público em saúde, três países conseguiriam alcançar a meta na próxima década. Outros quatro países atingiriam a meta antes de meados do século, 10 na segunda metade deste século e um somente a alcançaria no século seguinte. E, por fim, 13 países nunca atingiriam a meta proposta. Conclusões. Esta análise demonstra as limitações do crescimento econômico como fonte de espaço fiscal. Será necessário recorrer a outras fontes, como maior arrecadação tributária, impostos próprios para a saúde e maior eficiência no gasto público, o que demanda dos países um diálogo social e político quanto ao compromisso com os princípios de saúde universal.

Fiscal space for sustainable financing of health systems and universal health

[ABSTRACT]. The articles published in this series show that it is possible to create fiscal space for health in countries. This requires specific decisions since economic growth is not enough to generate the additional resources needed. The studies analyze the benefits of reviewing tax expenditures to identify exemptions, which are generally outdated and of low benefit for the countries; arguments in favor of increasing taxes on products harmful to health; and credits and donations, which do not result in a viable source of income for governments. Fiscal efforts must be accompanied by an improvement in efficiency, and the progressive creation of new revenues is key to improving equity. It is necessary to improve the collection of fiscal resources. It is necessary to develop a research and action agenda that includes the analysis of fiscal space within the processes of health system transformation and reform, including technical aspects not yet addressed and studies of the social efficiency of fiscal space for major development objectives such as the Sustainable Development Goals 2030. In the countries of the Region of the Americas it is essential to have efficient management to do more and better with more resources, even during adverse economic cycles. This should be evident at all levels, including solidarity for achieving better health outcomes, the strategic purchase of goods and services for health, and the strengthening of budget planning systems.

An assessment of fiscal space for health in Peru

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To assess the fiscal space for health in Peru needed to attain the target of raising public spending in health to 6% of gross domestic product, as agreed by member countries of the Pan American Health Organization in 2014. Methods. The main sources of fiscal space were identified by means of a thorough literature review. Technical feasibility was determined from statistics and national and international surveys and by reviewing various documents and official reports. Political feasibility was ascertained by studying policy guidelines. Results. The sources showing the greatest technical and political feasibility are economic growth, a broadening of the personal income tax base, and an increase in tobacco-specific taxes. Decreasing informality in the job market and increasing contributory coverage are considered to be less politically feasible, but there is ample technical space for these measures. Conclusions. There is enough fiscal space to allow for an increase in public spending in health. Nevertheless, the 6% target will be reached only if the timeline is extended, tax revenues are increased, and informality in the job market is reduced.

Evaluation of fiscal space for health in Bolivia

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To assess, from a technical and political standpoint, the capacity of Bolivia to generate fiscal space for health that allows the country to sustain progress and fulfill the commitment of a public expenditure in health of 6% of gross domestic product. Methods. A review was conducted of the international evidence on fiscal space and how it is measured. The technical analysis was developed through statistics and official reports from multiple national and international secondary sources. The political and social analysis was carried out through 20 interviews with representatives of organizations and institutions. Results. There is capacity to create fiscal space in health for Bolivia. The three sources with the greatest technical and political feasibility are: economic growth linked to a commitment to reprioritize public spending on health; improvements in the internal sources of revenue through the reduction of informal work; and reduction of tax expenditures. External financing and an increase of Social Security contributions are less feasible. Conclusions. Bolivia is able to achieve a public health spending of 6% of gross domestic product. The timing to achieve this target depends on maintaining the prioritization of spending in the sector, with social and political consensus and within a framework of economic growth and stability.

Espacio fiscal para salud en Honduras / Fiscal space for health in Honduras / Espaço fiscal para saúde em Honduras

RESUMEN Objetivo Analizar las fuentes de espacio fiscal para el sector salud en Honduras en un contexto de reforma del sector, con el compromiso de alcanzar una meta de gasto público en salud de 6% del producto interno bruto (PIB). Métodos Se realizó un análisis de la condición básica y las fuentes de espacio fiscal en base a una revisión bibliográfica y datos secundarios. Se estimó el tamaño de las fuentes con datos oficiales, estadísticas internacionales y estudios previos. De manera complementaria al estudio, se realizó un análisis de la factibilidad política y se aplicó una encuesta en línea a actores clave. Resultados Las estimaciones de la condición básica de crecimiento económico muestran que es necesario identificar otras fuentes para poder generar nuevos recursos. La reciente reforma tributaria limita la factibilidad política de generar nuevos impuestos, a excepción de los impuestos al pecado cuya recaudación se podría asignar exclusivamente a salud. La reforma de protección social abre el camino para explorar medidas que liberen recursos con mejoras en la eficiencia del sector. Una limitante en el caso del gasto público proveniente de la seguridad social es el techo de la base contributiva, independiente de una aceleración en la formalización laboral. Conclusiones Honduras puede avanzar en lograr la meta de un gasto público en salud de 6% del PIB que respalde los planes de reforma sectorial, pero sus opciones se ven limitadas por la reciente reforma tributaria. La reforma de protección social en salud debe considerar los recursos adicionales que tendrá disponibles para no poner en riesgo su implementación.

ABSTRACT Objective To analyze sources of fiscal space for the health sector in Honduras, in the context of sectoral reform, with a commitment to achieving the target of public expenditure on health equivalent to 6% of gross domestic product (GDP). Methods An analysis of baseline conditions and sources of fiscal space was conducted on the basis of a literature review and secondary data. The size of each source was estimated from official data, international statistics, and previous studies. In parallel to this study, political feasibility was analyzed and an online survey was administered to key actors. Results Estimates of baseline conditions for economic growth show that other sources must be identified in order to generate new resources. The recent tax reform limits the political feasibility of creating new taxes, except for "sin taxes", that could be used exclusively to fund health. Social protection reform paves the way to explore measures that could make resources available by improving efficiency in the sector. One limitation on public expenditure based on social security contributions is the ceiling on taxable income, notwithstanding acceleration in the formalization of the labor market. Conclusions Honduras can advance towards achieving the target of public expenditure on health equivalent to 6% of GDP with the support of plans for sectoral reform, but its options are limited by the recent tax reform. The reform of social protection in health should consider additional available resources so as not to jeopardize implementation of the reform.

RESUMO Objetivo Analisar as fontes de espaço fiscal para saúde em Honduras no contexto da reforma do setor, com o compromisso de alcançar uma meta de gasto público em saúde de 6% do produto interno bruto (PIB). Métodos Foi realizada uma análise da situação básica e das fontes de espaço fiscal com base em uma revisão da literatura e dados secundários. Foi estimado o tamanho das fontes com dados oficiais, estatísticas internacionais e estudos prévios. Para complementar o estudo, foi realizada uma análise da viabilidade política e uma pesquisa online com os principais interessados diretos. Resultados As estimativas da situação básica de crescimento econômico indicam que é necessário identificar novas fontes para geração de recursos. A reforma tributária recente restringe a viabilidade política de criar impostos, exceto impostos pecuniários cuja arrecadação poderia ser alocada exclusivamente à saúde. A reforma da previdência social abre caminho para examinar medidas para liberar recursos com a melhoria da eficiência do setor. Uma limitante no caso do gasto público proveniente da previdência social é o teto da base contributiva, independente de uma aceleração na formalização das relações de trabalho. Conclusões Honduras pode procurar alcançar uma meta de gasto público em saúde de 6% do PIB que respalde os planos de reforma setorial, mas as opções são limitadas pela recente reforma tributária. A reforma da previdência social em saúde deve considerar os recursos adicionais que terá à disposição para não comprometer a própria implementação.

Espacio fiscal para el financiamiento sostenible de los sistemas de salud y la salud universal

[RESUMEN]. Los artículos publicados en esta serie muestran que es posible crear espacio fiscal para la salud en los países. Para esto se requieren decisiones específicas, ya que el crecimiento económico no es suficiente para generar los recursos adicionales necesarios. Los estudios analizan la conveniencia de revisar los gastos tributarios para identificar las exenciones —en general desactualizadas y de escasos beneficios para los países—; los argumentos para aumentar los impuestos sobre productos dañinos para la salud; y los créditos y donaciones, que no resultan una fuente de ingresos viable para los gobiernos. Los esfuerzos fiscales deben ser acompañados por una mejora de la eficiencia, y la creación progresiva de nuevos ingresos es clave para mejorar la equidad. Es necesario mejorar la recaudación de los recursos fiscales. Para esto se requiere desarrollar una agenda de investigación y acción que entienda el análisis del espacio fiscal inserto en los procesos de transformación y reforma de los sistemas de salud, que abarque los aspectos técnicos no abordados aún y estudios de la eficiencia social del espacio fiscal para los grandes objetivos de desarrollo como los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible 2030. En los países de la Región de las Américas es imprescindible contar con una gestión eficiente para hacer más y mejor con más recursos, incluso durante los ciclos económicos adversos. Esta debe evidenciarse en todos los niveles, incluidas la solidaridad que logra mejores resultados en salud, los sistemas de asignación de recursos a los proveedores, la compra estratégica de bienes y servicios de salud y el fortalecimiento de los sistemas de planificación presupuestaria.

[ABSTRACT]. The articles published in this series show that it is possible to create fiscal space for health in the countries. This requires specific decisions since economic growth is not enough to generate the additional resources needed. The studies analyze the benefit of reviewing the tax expenditures to identify exemptions — generally outdated and of low benefit for the countries —; arguments to increase taxes on products harmful to health; and credits and donations, which do not result in a viable source of income for governments. Fiscal efforts must be accompanied by an improvement in efficiency, and the progressive creation of new revenues is key to improving equity. It is necessary to improve the collection of fiscal resources. To this end, it is necessary to develop a research and action agenda that understands the analysis of the fiscal space inserted in the processes of transformation and reform of health systems, including the technical aspects not yet addressed and studies of the social efficiency of the fiscal space for major development objectives such as the Sustainable Development Goals 2030. In the countries of the Region of the Americas it is essential to have efficient management to do more and better with more resources, even during adverse economic cycles. This should be evident at all levels, including solidarity for achieving better health outcomes, strategic purchase of health goods and services, and strengthening of budget planning systems.

[RESUMO]. Os artigos publicados nesta série mostram que é possível criar espaço fiscal para a saúde nos países. Isso requer decisões específicas, já que o crescimento econômico não é suficiente para gerar os recursos adicionais necessários. Os estudos analisam o benefício de rever as despesas fiscais para identificar isenções—geralmente desatualizadas e de baixo benefício para os países—; argumentos para aumentar os impostos sobre os produtos prejudiciais à saúde; e créditos e doações, que não resultam em uma fonte viável de renda para os governos. Os esforços fiscais devem ser acompanhados por uma melhoria na eficiência, e a criação progressiva de novas receitas é fundamental para melhorar a equidade. É necessário melhorar a arrecadação de recursos fiscais. Para tanto, é necessário desenvolver uma agenda de pesquisa e ação que compreenda a análise do espaço fiscal inserido nos processos de transformação e reforma dos sistemas de saúde, incluindo os aspectos técnicos ainda não abordados e estudos sobre a eficiência social do espaço fiscal para grandes objetivos de desenvolvimento, como os Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável 2030. Nos países da Região das Américas é essencial ter uma gestão eficiente para fazer mais e melhor com mais recursos, mesmo durante ciclos econômicos adversos. Isso deve ser evidente em todos os níveis, incluindo a solidariedade para alcançar melhores resultados de saúde, a compra estratégica de bens e serviços de saúde e o fortalecimento dos sistemas de planejamento orçamentário.

Espacio fiscal para salud en las Américas: ¿es suficiente el crecimiento económico?

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. En 2014, los países miembros de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud firmaron la Estrategia para el acceso universal a salud y cobertura universal de salud. En ella, se comprometieron a aumentar el gasto público en salud hasta alcanzar la meta referencial de 6% del producto interno bruto (PIB). El objetivo de este trabajo es determinar, para cada uno de los países de la Región, si pueden alcanzar esta meta solo con crecimiento económico y, en el caso de ser posible, en qué plazos lo harían. Métodos. Se utilizaron datos del Banco Mundial y de la Organización Mundial de Salud y se estimaron las elasticidades del gasto público en salud con respecto al PIB para cada país. Con base en el crecimiento económico real y el proyectado por el Fondo Monetario Internacional 2016–2021, se proyectó la serie de gasto y se determinó el año en el que alcanzarían 6% del producto. Resultados. Seis países ya han alcanzado la meta de 6%. Los países de América Latina y el Caribe que la han logrado son aquellos que mantienen sistemas de salud únicos, basados en acceso y cobertura universales. Si se mantiene la priorización actual del gasto público en salud, tres países podrían alcanzar la meta en la próxima década. Otros cuatro países lo harían antes de medio siglo, diez en la segunda mitad y uno tendría que esperar hasta la próxima centuria. Por último, 13 países nunca alcanzarían la meta propuesta. Conclusiones. Este análisis demuestra las limitaciones del crecimiento económico como fuente de espacio fiscal. Será necesario recurrir a otras fuentes como mayor recaudación tributaria, impuestos específicos en salud y mayor eficiencia en el gasto público, lo que demandará un diálogo social y político de los países en torno al compromiso con los principios de la salud universal.

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. In 2014, the Pan American Health Organization member countries signed the Strategy for Universal Access to Health and Universal Health Coverage. In it, they committed to increasing public health expenditure until reaching the benchmark of 6% of gross domestic product (GDP). The objective of this paper is to determine, for each country in the Region, if they can reach this goal by economic growth alone and, if so, how long it would take. Methods. Using World Bank and World Health Organization data, elasticity of public health expenditure with regard to GDP was estimated for each country. Real economic growth and International Monetary Fund projections for 2016–2021 were used to project the expenditure series and determine the year each country would reach 6% of GDP. Results. Six countries have already reached the 6% goal. The Latin American and Caribbean countries that have achieved it are those that have single health systems, based on universal access and coverage. If current prioritization of public health expenditure is maintained, three countries could reach the goal in the next decade. Four more countries would reach it before mid-century, ten in the second half of the century, and one would have to wait until the next century. Finally, 13 countries would never reach the proposed goal. Conclusions. This analysis demonstrates the limitations of economic growth as a source of fiscal space. Other sources will need to be tapped, such as increased tax collection, specific health taxes, and greater efficiency in public spending, which will require social and political dialogue in the countries regarding their commitment to universal health principles.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Em 2014, os Estados Membros da Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde firmaram a Estratégia para o acesso universal à saúde e cobertura universal de saúde com a qual se comprometeram a aumentar o gasto público em saúde até atingir a meta de referência de 6% do produto interno bruto (PIB). O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar se cada um dos países da Região conseguiria atingir esta meta apenas com o crescimento econômico e, neste caso, em que prazo. Métodos. O estudo se baseou em dados obtidos do Banco Mundial e da Organização Mundial de Saúde (OMS). Foi estimada a elasticidade do gasto público em saúde com relação ao PIB para cada país. A partir do crescimento econômico real e do crescimento projetado pelo Fundo Monetário Internacional para o período 2016–2021, foi feita a projeção dos gastos e determinado o ano em que seriam alcançados 6% do PIB. Resultados. Seis países já atingiram a meta de 6%. Os países da América Latina e Caribe que atingiram esta meta são os que têm um sistema de saúde único baseado no acesso e cobertura universais. Se for mantida a priorização atual do gasto público em saúde, três países conseguiriam alcançar a meta na próxima década. Outros quatro países atingiriam a meta antes de meados do século, 10 na segunda metade deste século e um somente a alcançaria no século seguinte. E, por fim, 13 países nunca atingiriam a meta proposta. Conclusões. Esta análise demonstra as limitações do crescimento econômico como fonte de espaço fiscal. Será necessário recorrer a outras fontes, como maior arrecadação tributária, impostos próprios para a saúde e maior eficiência no gasto público, o que demanda dos países um diálogo social e político quanto ao compromisso com os princípios de saúde universal.

Evaluación del espacio fiscal para salud en Bolivia

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Evaluar desde los puntos de vista técnico y político la capacidad de Bolivia para generar espacio fiscal para salud que le permita sostener los avances y cumplir el compromiso de un gasto público en salud de 6% del producto interno bruto (PIB). Métodos. Se realizó una revisión de la evidencia internacional sobre espacio fiscal y sus mediciones. El análisis técnico se desarrolló a través del uso de estadísticas e informes oficiales de múltiples fuentes secundarias nacionales e internacionales. El análisis político y social se llevó a cabo mediante 20 entrevistas a representantes de organismos e instituciones. Resultados. Existe capacidad para crear espacio fiscal en salud para Bolivia. Las fuentes con mayor factibilidad técnica y política son tres: el crecimiento económico vinculado al compromiso de repriorización del gasto público en salud, mejoras de las fuentes internas de recaudación a través de la reducción de la informalidad y reducción de los gastos tributarios. Con menos factibilidad se sitúa el financiamiento externo y el aumento de las contribuciones a la Seguridad Social. Conclusiones. Bolivia está en condiciones de alcanzar un gasto público en salud de 6% del PIB. El tiempo en que logre esta meta depende de mantener la priorización del gasto en el sector, con el consenso de la mayoría social y política y en un marco de crecimiento y estabilidad económica.

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To assess from a technical and political point of view the capacity of Bolivia to generate fiscal space for health that allows it to sustain progress and fulfill the commitment of a public health expenditure of 6% of gross domestic product. Methods. A review of the international evidence on fiscal space and its measurements was conducted. The technical analysis was developed through statistics and official reports from multiple national and international secondary sources. The political and social analysis was carried out through 20 interviews with representatives of organizations and institutions. Results. There is capacity to create fiscal space in health for Bolivia. There are three sources with the greatest technical and political feasibility: economic growth linked to the commitment to reprioritize public spending on health; improvements in the internal sources of revenue through the reduction of informal work; and reduction of tax expenditures. External financing and an increase of Social Security contributions are less feasible. Conclusions. Bolivia is able to achieve a public health spending of 6% of gross domestic product. The timing to achieve this goal depends on maintaining the prioritization of spending in the sector, with social and political consensus and within a framework of economic growth and stability.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Avaliar do ponto de vista técnico e político a capacidade da Bolívia para gerar espaço fiscal para a saúde que lhe permita sustentar o progresso e cumprir o compromisso de uma despesa de saúde pública de 6% do Produto Interno Bruto (PIB). Métodos. Foi feita uma revisão da evidência internacional sobre o espaço fiscal e suas medições. A análise técnica foi desenvolvida através do uso de estatísticas e relatórios oficiais de múltiplas fontes secundárias nacionais e internacionais. A análise política e social foi realizada através de 20 entrevistas com representantes de organizações e instituições. Resultados. Existe capacidade para criar espaço fiscal em saúde para a Bolívia. As fontes com maior viabilidade técnica e política são três: crescimento econômico ligado ao compromisso de desajustar as despesas públicas em saúde, melhorias nas fontes internas de receita através da redução da informalidade e redução de despesas tributárias. Com menos viabilidade é o financiamento externo e o aumento das contribuições para a Segurança Social. Conclusões. A Bolívia é capaz de alcançar gastos de saúde pública de 6% do PIB. O tempo que atinge esse objetivo depende da manutenção da priorização dos gastos no setor, com o consenso da maioria social e política, tudo em um quadro de crescimento econômico e estabilidade.

Evaluación del espacio fiscal para la salud en Perú / An assessment of fiscal space for public health in Peru

Objetivo. Evaluar el espacio fiscal para la salud en Perú́ para alcanzar la meta de un gasto público en salud de 6% del producto interno bruto acordada por los Estados Miembros de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud en 2014. Métodos. Se han identificado las principales fuentes de espacio fiscal mediante una revisión bibliográfica profunda. Su factibilidad técnica se valoró a través de estadísticas y encuestas nacionales e internacionales y la revisión de documentos y reportes oficiales. Su factibilidad política se evaluó con el análisis de lineamientos de políticas. Resultados. Las fuentes con mayor factibilidad técnica y política son el crecimiento económico, el aumento de la base tributaria del impuesto al ingreso de las personas naturales y el aumento de la tributación específica sobre el tabaco. Con menos factibilidad política, pero con un amplio espacio técnico, se considera la reducción de la informalidad en el mercado de trabajo y el aumento de la cobertura contributiva. Conclusiones. Existe espacio fiscal para aumentar el gasto público en salud. No obstante, la meta de 6% solo se puede alcanzar con más plazo, mayor recaudación impositiva y menor informalidad en el mercado de trabajo.

Objective. To assess the fiscal space for public health in Peru so as to attain the goal of raising health spending to 6% of gross domestic product, as agreed upon by member countries of the Pan American Health Organization in 2014. Methods. The main sources of fiscal space were identified by means of a thorough literature review. Technical feasibility was determined from statistics and national and international surveys and by reviewing various documents and official reports. Political feasibility was ascertained by studying policy guidelines. Results. The sources showing the greatest technical and political feasibility are economic growth, a broadening of the personal income tax base, and an increase in tobacco- specific taxes. Decreasing informality in the job market and increasing contributory coverage are considered to be less politically feasible, but there is ample technical space for these measures. Conclusions. There is enough fiscal space to allow for an increase in public health spending. Nevertheless, the 6% target will be reached only if the timeline is extended, tax revenues are increased, and informality in the job market is reduced.

Costo de un sistema de atención de adultos mayores dependientes en Chile, 2012 - 2020 / Cost of a health care system for dependent older adults in Chile, 2012 - 2020

OBJETIVO: Obtener una estimación de los costos relativo y absoluto de un sistema de atención domiciliaria para los adultos mayores dependientes en Chile y reflexionar sobre las consideraciones metodológicas a tener en cuenta en estimaciones para otros modelos en otros países. MÉTODOS: Se utilizaron tasas de prevalencia por sexo y edad con base en los microdatos de la Encuesta Nacional de Dependencia (ENDPM 2009) y se proyectaron tres escenarios para 2012 - 2020. Se estimó la población beneficiaria y la demanda de 12 programas de servicios de atención domiciliaria. Las características de los programas, en horas y tipo de atención se obtuvieron del juicio de expertos, ajustados por la revisión bibliográfica. Se utilizaron salarios/hora del sistema público y privado. RESULTADOS: Entre los mayores de 65 años, 20,3% sería beneficiario del sistema; 21,7% sobre el total de mujeres y 18,4% sobre el total de hombres. Su número asciende a 336 874 personas para 2012. El costo anual del sistema alcanza los 1 214 millones de dólares para 2012. Esto equivale a 0,45% del PIB (producto interior bruto), que se podría incrementar entre 32,1% y 33,1% hasta 2020. CONCLUSIONES: El costo de un sistema inicial para adultos mayores dependientes en Chile es relativamente bajo en comparación con los modelos de los países industrializados. En términos metodológicos, se destaca la importancia de la discusión previa sobre el tipo de modelo que se desee implementar y las posibilidades financieras de llevarlo a cabo. Además, se valida la opción de utilizar juicios de expertos para la evaluación, aunque se aconseja ampliarla.

OBJECTIVE: . To estimate the relative and absolute costs of a home-based health care system for dependent older adults in Chile and to consider the methodological factors to take into account in estimates for other models in other countries. METHODS: Sex- and age-specific prevalence rates were used, based on microdata from the National Dependency Survey (ENDPM 2009), and three scenarios were projected for 2012 - 2020. The beneficiary population and the demand were estimated for 12 home-based health care programs. The characteristics of the programs (number of hours and type of care) were based on expert opinions, adjusted through a literature review. Public and private system wages/hours were used. RESULTS: Overall, 20.3% of people over 65 years of age would be beneficiaries of the system; 21.7% of all women and 18.4% of all men, for a total of 336 874 people in 2012. The annual cost of the system is 1.214 billion dollars for 2012, equivalent to 0.45% of GDP (gross domestic product). This figure could increase by between 32.1% and 33.1% by 2020. CONCLUSIONS: The cost of an initial system for dependent older adults in Chile is relatively low in comparison to the models seen in industrialized countries. In terms of methodology, it is particularly important for there to be prior discussion of the desired model to be implemented and the financial capacity to achieve this. Furthermore, the option of using expert opinions as the basis for the evaluation is validated, although it is recommended that this be expanded.

Financiamiento agregado de la salud en Chile: año 2008 / Health financing in Chile: 2008

Objetivo: estimar los principales componentes agregados del financiamiento de la salud en Chile y la participación de ambos sectores de la seguridad social de salud: FONASA (público) e Isapres (privado). Método: para contabilizar los ingresos de seguridad social de salud: aporte fiscal, cotizaciones y co-pagos, se utilizaron registros oficiales para el año 2008. Para el caso del gasto de bolsillo no proveniente de co-pagos registrados, los montos se estimaron en base a la Encuestas de Presupuesto Familiares (EPF) 2007, lo que constituyó una innovación y mejoramiento metodológico. Resultados: el financiamiento del sistema de seguridad social de salud en Chile alcanzó el 6,9 por ciento del PIB en 2008 y un 7,4 por ciento del PIB cuando se incluyen, además, a las FFAA y a las Mutuales de Seguridad contra accidentes del trabajo y enfermedades profesionales. Entre sus componentes destaca el bajo aporte fiscal y el alto gasto de bolsillo y que el 2,4 por ciento del PIB del financiamiento lo ocupan los beneficiarios de isapres, es decir, el 16,5 por ciento de la población. Conclusiones: hasta hace poco los estudios mostraban un gasto de bolsillo significativamente más bajo. No obstante, la utilización de encuestas de hogares para la estimación agregada, nos ha permitido determinar que este gasto alcanza un preocupante 40% del financiamiento de la seguridad social de salud. Este dato es un mal resultado para Chile y muestra que el país no ha podido abordar adecuadamente el problema de la protección financiera, probablemente debido a que los instrumentos puestos en práctica en las últimas reformas, no estaban capacitados para modificar estructuralmente el financiamiento.

Objective: to estimate the main components of aggregate health financing in Chile and the participation of both sectors of the health social security: FONASA (public) and Isapres (private). Method: accounting for revenues from social security health: general taxes, contributions and co-payments, official records were used. In the case of out-of-pocket expenditure, the amounts were estimated based on a Household Survey of 2007. This was a methodological innovation and improvement. Results: the financing of the social security system of health care in Chile reached 6.9 percent of GDP in 2008 and 7.4 percent of GDP when including also the armed forces and the Mutual System of Occupational Health Insurance. We highlight the low level of taxes among the financial sources and, on the contrary, the high proportion of out-of-pocket expenditure; also, that 2.4 percent of GDP funding is occupied by Isapres beneficiaries, i.e, by 16.5 percent of the population. Conclusions: Until recently, studies showed a significantly lower proportion of out-of-pocket spending. However, the use of household surveys allowed us to determine that this spending reaches an alarming 40 percent of social security financing of health. This fact is a bad result for Chile and shows that the country has failed to adequately address the problem of financial protection, probably because the instruments implemented in the latest reforms were not able to structurally modify the financing pattern.