The contribution of insects to global forest deadwood decomposition.

The amount of carbon stored in deadwood is equivalent to about 8 per cent of the global forest carbon stocks1. The decomposition of deadwood is largely governed by climate2-5 with decomposer groups-such as microorganisms and insects-contributing to variations in the decomposition rates2,6,7. At the global scale, the contribution of insects to the decomposition of deadwood and carbon release remains poorly understood7. Here we present a field experiment of wood decomposition across 55 forest sites and 6 continents. We find that the deadwood decomposition rates increase with temperature, and the strongest temperature effect is found at high precipitation levels. Precipitation affects the decomposition rates negatively at low temperatures and positively at high temperatures. As a net effect-including the direct consumption by insects and indirect effects through interactions with microorganisms-insects accelerate the decomposition in tropical forests (3.9% median mass loss per year). In temperate and boreal forests, we find weak positive and negative effects with a median mass loss of 0.9 per cent and -0.1 per cent per year, respectively. Furthermore, we apply the experimentally derived decomposition function to a global map of deadwood carbon synthesized from empirical and remote-sensing data, obtaining an estimate of 10.9 ± 3.2 petagram of carbon per year released from deadwood globally, with 93 per cent originating from tropical forests. Globally, the net effect of insects may account for 29 per cent of the carbon flux from deadwood, which suggests a functional importance of insects in the decomposition of deadwood and the carbon cycle.

Iditarod, a Drosophila homolog of the Irisin precursor FNDC5, is critical for exercise performance and cardiac autophagy.

Mammalian FNDC5 encodes a protein precursor of Irisin, which is important for exercise-dependent regulation of whole-body metabolism. In a genetic screen in Drosophila, we identified Iditarod (Idit), which shows substantial protein homology to mouse and human FNDC5, as a regulator of autophagy acting downstream of Atg1/Atg13. Physiologically, Idit-deficient flies showed reduced exercise performance and defective cold resistance, which were rescued by exogenous expression of Idit. Exercise training increased endurance in wild-type flies, but not in Idit-deficient flies. Conversely, Idit is induced upon exercise training, and transgenic expression of Idit in wild-type flies increased endurance to the level of exercise trained flies. Finally, Idit deficiency prevented both exercise-induced increase in cardiac Atg8 and exercise-induced cardiac stress resistance, suggesting that cardiac autophagy may be an additional mechanism by which Idit is involved in the adaptive response to exercise. Our work suggests an ancient role of an Iditarod/Irisin/FNDC5 family of proteins in autophagy, exercise physiology, and cold adaptation, conserved throughout metazoan species.

The glutamic acid-rich-long C-terminal extension of troponin T has a critical role in insect muscle functions.

The troponin complex regulates the Ca2+ activation of myofilaments during striated muscle contraction and relaxation. Troponin genes emerged 500-700 million years ago during early animal evolution. Troponin T (TnT) is the thin-filament-anchoring subunit of troponin. Vertebrate and invertebrate TnTs have conserved core structures, reflecting conserved functions in regulating muscle contraction, and they also contain significantly diverged structures, reflecting muscle type- and species-specific adaptations. TnT in insects contains a highly-diverged structure consisting of a long glutamic acid-rich C-terminal extension of ∼70 residues with unknown function. We found here that C-terminally truncated Drosophila TnT (TpnT-CD70) retains binding of tropomyosin, troponin I, and troponin C, indicating a preserved core structure of TnT. However, the mutant TpnTCD70 gene residing on the X chromosome resulted in lethality in male flies. We demonstrate that this X-linked mutation produces dominant-negative phenotypes, including decreased flying and climbing abilities, in heterozygous female flies. Immunoblot quantification with a TpnT-specific mAb indicated expression of TpnT-CD70 in vivo and normal stoichiometry of total TnT in myofilaments of heterozygous female flies. Light and EM examinations revealed primarily normal sarcomere structures in female heterozygous animals, whereas Z-band streaming could be observed in the jump muscle of these flies. Although TpnT-CD70-expressing flies exhibited lower resistance to cardiac stress, their hearts were significantly more tolerant to Ca2+ overloading induced by high-frequency electrical pacing. Our findings suggest that the Glu-rich long C-terminal extension of insect TnT functions as a myofilament Ca2+ buffer/reservoir and is potentially critical to the high-frequency asynchronous contraction of flight muscles.

Navigation of a Freely Walking Fruit Fly in Infinite Space Using a Transparent Omnidirectional Locomotion Compensator (TOLC).

Animal behavior is an essential element in behavioral neuroscience study. However, most behavior studies in small animals such as fruit flies (Drosophilamelanogaster) have been performed in a limited spatial chamber or by tethering the fly's body on a fixture, which restricts its natural behavior. In this paper, we developed the Transparent Omnidirectional Locomotion Compensator (TOLC) for a freely walking fruit fly without tethering, which enables its navigation in infinite space. The TOLC maintains a position of a fruit fly by compensating its motion using the transparent sphere. The TOLC is capable of maintaining the position error < 1 mm for 90.3% of the time and the heading error < 5° for 80.2% of the time. The inverted imaging system with a transparent sphere secures the space for an additional experimental apparatus. Because the proposed TOLC allows us to observe a freely walking fly without physical tethering, there is no potential injury during the experiment. Thus, the TOLC will offer a unique opportunity to investigate longitudinal studies of a wide range of behavior in an unrestricted walking Drosophila.

Variation in mobility and exercise adaptations between Drosophila species.

Locomotion and mobility have been studied extensively in Drosophila melanogaster but less is known about the locomotor capacity of other Drosophila species, while the response to chronic exercise in other species has yet to be examined. We have shown that adult male D. melanogaster adapt to exercise training with improved running endurance, climbing speed, and flight ability compared to unexercised flies. Here, we examine baseline mobility of D. sechellia, D. simulans, and D. virilis, and their response to chronic exercise training. We found significant interspecific differences in mobility and in the response to exercise. Although there is a significant sex difference in exercise adaptations in D. melanogaster, intraspecific analysis reveals few sex differences in other Drosophila species. As octopamine has been shown to be important for exercise adaptations in D. melanogaster, we also asked if any observed differences could be attributed to baseline octopamine levels. We find that octopamine and tyramine levels have the same rank order as baseline climbing speed and endurance in males, but do not predict the response to chronic exercise in males or females. Future research should focus on determining the mechanisms responsible for the inter- and intraspecific differences in mobility and the response to exercise.

Swimmer's itch in Canada: a look at the past and a survey of the present to plan for the future.

BACKGROUND: Cercarial dermatitis, colloquially "swimmer's itch", is a rash contracted in natural bodies of water, when people are exposed to skin-penetrating, larval flatworm parasites of the family Schistosomatidae, that emerge from aquatic snails. Swimmer's itch is a globally-distributed, allergic condition, of which we know very little regarding local dynamics of transmission. This study aims to gather relevant information on swimmer's itch in Canada, from multiple perspectives, including the human experience, parasite and host presence and distributions, and insight from historical perspectives. METHODS: Herein we utilize a mixed-methods approach towards examining the environmental health issue of swimmer's itch in Canadian lakes from a nation-wide viewpoint, with an example from Alberta. We examine the human perspective of having contracted swimmer's itch through a self-reporting surveillance system implemented over a 5-year period. We also conducted a 3-year species survey of parasites and intermediate snail hosts within lakes in central Alberta and compiled this data with snail and vertebrate (definitive) host survey data from across Alberta to examine potential for future spread. We compare the results from our surveys to a historical review of the literature to examine the extent of swimmer's itch across Canada and identify where future efforts should be focused. RESULTS: Over 3800 cases of swimmer's itch were captured across Canada by the self-reporting surveillance system. Swimmer's itch cases were reported from every province except Prince Edward Island. Species surveys in Alberta revealed 7 new parasite and host records, with potential for swimmer's itch to occur throughout most of the province based on host distributions. A review and comparison to the literature has highlighted several knowledge gaps surrounding schistosome species, host species and their distributions and contributions towards swimmer's itch. CONCLUSIONS: Swimmer's itch is a greater environmental health hazard across Canada than previous literature would have alluded. This study provides proof-of-concept for the utility of a self-reporting surveillance system for swimmer's itch in Canada. Recommendations are made towards implementing a systems-thinking approach that incorporates citizen-scientists for future research, management, and policy surrounding swimmer's itch.

Neuronal E93 is required for adaptation to adult metabolism and behavior.

OBJECTIVE: Metamorphosis is a transition from growth to reproduction, through which an animal adopts adult behavior and metabolism. Yet the neural mechanisms underlying the switch are unclear. Here we report that neuronal E93, a transcription factor essential for metamorphosis, regulates the adult metabolism, physiology, and behavior in Drosophila melanogaster. METHODS: To find new neuronal regulators of metabolism, we performed a targeted RNAi-based screen of 70 Drosophila orthologs of the mammalian genes enriched in ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH). Once E93 was identified from the screen, we characterized changes in physiology and behavior when neuronal expression of E93 is knocked down. To identify the neurons where E93 acts, we performed an additional screen targeting subsets of neurons or endocrine cells. RESULTS: E93 is required to control appetite, metabolism, exercise endurance, and circadian rhythms. The diverse phenotypes caused by pan-neuronal knockdown of E93, including obesity, exercise intolerance and circadian disruption, can all be phenocopied by knockdown of E93 specifically in either GABA or MIP neurons, suggesting these neurons are key sites of E93 action. Knockdown of the Ecdysone Receptor specifically in MIP neurons partially phenocopies the MIP neuron-specific knockdown of E93, suggesting the steroid signal coordinates adult metabolism via E93 and a neuropeptidergic signal. Finally, E93 expression in GABA and MIP neurons also serves as a key switch for the adaptation to adult behavior, as animals with reduced expression of E93 in the two subsets of neurons exhibit reduced reproductive activity. CONCLUSIONS: Our study reveals that E93 is a new monogenic factor essential for metabolic, physiological, and behavioral adaptation from larval behavior to adult behavior.

Sestrin regulates acute chill coma recovery in Drosophila melanogaster.

When chill-susceptible insects are exposed to low temperatures they enter a temporary state of paralysis referred to as a chill coma. The most well-studied physiological mechanism of chill coma onset and recovery involves regulation of ion homeostasis. Previous studies show that changes in metabolism may also underlie the ability to recovery quickly, but the roles of genes that regulate metabolic homeostasis in chill coma recovery time (CCRT) are not well understood. Here, we investigate the roles of Sestrin and Spargel (Drosophila homolog of PGC-1α), which are involved in metabolic homeostasis and substrate oxidation, on CCRT in Drosophila melanogaster. We find that sestrin and spargel mutants have impaired CCRT. sestrin is required in the muscle and nervous system tissue for normal CCRT and spargel is required in muscle and adipose. On the basis that exercise induces sestrin and spargel, we also test the interaction of cold and exercise. We find that pre-treatment with one of these stressors does not consistently confer acute protection against the other. We conclude that Sestrin and Spargel are important in the chill coma response, independent of their role in exercise.

The effects of genetic background on exercise performance in Drosophila.

The use of the Drosophila model for studying the broad beneficial effects of exercise training has grown over the past decade. As work using Drosophila as an exercise model becomes more widespread, the influence of genetic background on performance should be examined in order to better understand its influence on assessments used to quantitatively measure and compare exercise phenotypes. In this article, we review the various methods of exercise training Drosophila, and the performance of different wild-type Drosophila strains on various physiological assessments of exercise response. We conclude by summarizing the performance trends of commonly used strains.

A new species of rake-legged mite, Caeculus cassiopeiae (Prostigmata, Caeculidae), from Canada and a systematic analysis of its genus.

The genus Caeculus Dufour (Prostigmata, Caeculidae) contains 19 previously described species, most of which are found in North America, and for which no comprehensive phylogenetic treatment exists. Here, one new species from Alberta, Canada, is described: Caeculus cassiopeiae Bernard & Lumley, sp. nov., and another caeculid known to be present in Canada is documented. The new species is characterized within the genus with a character state matrix, from which an updated key is produced. A systematic analysis of all 20 species based on morphological and geographical distribution traits obtained from literature represents the first phylogenetic review of the genus.

Sestrins are evolutionarily conserved mediators of exercise benefits.

Exercise is among the most effective interventions for age-associated mobility decline and metabolic dysregulation. Although long-term endurance exercise promotes insulin sensitivity and expands respiratory capacity, genetic components and pathways mediating the metabolic benefits of exercise have remained elusive. Here, we show that Sestrins, a family of evolutionarily conserved exercise-inducible proteins, are critical mediators of exercise benefits. In both fly and mouse models, genetic ablation of Sestrins prevents organisms from acquiring metabolic benefits of exercise and improving their endurance through training. Conversely, Sestrin upregulation mimics both molecular and physiological effects of exercise, suggesting that it could be a major effector of exercise metabolism. Among the various targets modulated by Sestrin in response to exercise, AKT and PGC1α are critical for the Sestrin effects in extending endurance. These results indicate that Sestrin is a key integrating factor that drives the benefits of chronic exercise to metabolism and physical endurance.

Estimating retention benchmarks for salvage logging to protect biodiversity.

Forests are increasingly affected by natural disturbances. Subsequent salvage logging, a widespread management practice conducted predominantly to recover economic capital, produces further disturbance and impacts biodiversity worldwide. Hence, naturally disturbed forests are among the most threatened habitats in the world, with consequences for their associated biodiversity. However, there are no evidence-based benchmarks for the proportion of area of naturally disturbed forests to be excluded from salvage logging to conserve biodiversity. We apply a mixed rarefaction/extrapolation approach to a global multi-taxa dataset from disturbed forests, including birds, plants, insects and fungi, to close this gap. We find that 75 ± 7% (mean ± SD) of a naturally disturbed area of a forest needs to be left unlogged to maintain 90% richness of its unique species, whereas retaining 50% of a naturally disturbed forest unlogged maintains 73 ± 12% of its unique species richness. These values do not change with the time elapsed since disturbance but vary considerably among taxonomic groups.

Drosophila Endurance Training and Assessment of Its Effects on Systemic Adaptations.

Exercise induces beneficial systemic adaptations that reduce the incidence of age-related diseases. However, the molecular pathways that elicit these adaptations are not well understood. Understanding the molecular mechanisms that underlie the exercise response can lead to widely beneficial therapies. Large populations, relatively short lifespan, and easily modifiable genetics make Drosophila a well-suited model system for complex, longitudinal studies. We have developed an enforced climbing apparatus for Drosophila, known as the Power Tower, for the study of systemic exercise adaptations. The Power Tower takes advantage of the fly's natural instinct for negative geotaxis, an innate behavior to run upwards after being tapped to the bottom of their vial. Flies will continuously run either to the point of exhaustion or until the machine is turned off, whichever comes first. After 3 weeks of exercise, male Drosophila adapt to training with a number of conserved, easily quantifiable physiological improvements similar to those seen in mammalian models and humans. Here, we describe a useful endurance training protocol and a suite of post-training assessments that effectively quantify training effects.

Use of REBOA to stabilize in-hospital iatrogenic intra-abdominal hemorrhage.

Resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta (REBOA) has become an increasingly popular alternative to emergency thoracotomy and aortic cross-clamping in patients with exsanguinating hemorrhage.1 This new capability is increasingly being used in non-trauma situations.2 3 This report demonstrates another novel use of REBOA for iatrogenic intra-abdominal hemorrhage. An 83-year-old man with multiple medical comorbidities and a history of chronic mesenteric ischemia was admitted to our institution for an elective mesenteric revascularization. Revascularization was unsuccessful, despite attempts to cross the lesion. Postprocedure, the patient developed a right groin hematoma, and CT on postprocedure day 0 demonstrated a femoral artery pseudoaneurysm and subintimal contrast at the level of the celiac artery, representing an iatrogenic dissection. The following day, he complained of dizziness. Physical examination revealed a blood pressure of 68/35 mm Hg, heart rate of 100 beats per minute, and a distended abdomen. Because the surgical intensive care unit (SICU) was full, he was transferred to the neurotrauma intesive care unit (NTICU) and intubated for hemodynamic instability. A chest X-ray revealed a prior thoracic endovascular aortic repair (figure 1), but no intrathoracic hemorrhage or pathology. Bedside ultrasonography revealed intra-abdominal fluid. Laboratory workup showed hemoglobin of 6.1 g/dL, from 10.9 the previous day. The patient was given two units of packed red blood cells, without response. The intensive care unit (ICU) team initiated norepinephrine, with minimal improvement despite increasing doses. Figure 1Chest X-ray with catheter in zone 1. Arrows mark the proximal and distal markers of the resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta. WHAT WOULD YOU DO?: Transfuse two units of packed red blood cells and observe.Proceed to the operating room (OR) for exploratory laparotomy.Endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta (zone 1).

Impacts of salvage logging on biodiversity: a meta-analysis.

Logging to "salvage" economic returns from forests affected by natural disturbances has become increasingly prevalent globally. Despite potential negative effects on biodiversity, salvage logging is often conducted, even in areas otherwise excluded from logging and reserved for nature conservation, inter alia because strategic priorities for post-disturbance management are widely lacking.A review of the existing literature revealed that most studies investigating the effects of salvage logging on biodiversity have been conducted less than 5 years following natural disturbances, and focused on non-saproxylic organisms.A meta-analysis across 24 species groups revealed that salvage logging significantly decreases numbers of species of eight taxonomic groups. Richness of dead wood dependent taxa (i.e. saproxylic organisms) decreased more strongly than richness of non-saproxylic taxa. In contrast, taxonomic groups typically associated with open habitats increased in the number of species after salvage logging.By analysing 134 original species abundance matrices, we demonstrate that salvage logging significantly alters community composition in 7 of 17 species groups, particularly affecting saproxylic assemblages.Synthesis and applications. Our results suggest that salvage logging is not consistent with the management objectives of protected areas. Substantial changes, such as the retention of dead wood in naturally disturbed forests, are needed to support biodiversity. Future research should investigate the amount and spatio-temporal distribution of retained dead wood needed to maintain all components of biodiversity.