The link between obesity and the gut microbiota and immune system in early-life.

In early-life, the gut microbiota is highly modifiable, being modulated by external factors such as maternal microbiota, mode of delivery, and feeding strategies. The composition of the child's gut microbiota will deeply impact the development and maturation of its immune system, with consequences for future health. As one of the main sources of microorganisms to the child, the mother represents a crucial factor in the establishment of early-life microbiota, impacting the infant's wellbeing. Recent studies have proposed that dysbiotic maternal gut microbiota could be transmitted to the offspring, influencing the development of its immunity, and leading to the development of diseases such as obesity. This paper aims to review recent findings in gut microbiota and immune system interaction in early-life, highlighting the benefits of a balanced gut microbiota in the regulation of the immune system.

Heterologous expression and structure prediction of a xylanase identified from a compost metagenomic library.

Xylanases are key biocatalysts in the degradation of the ß-1,4-glycosidic linkages in the xylan backbone of hemicellulose. These enzymes are potentially applied in a wide range of bioprocessing industries under harsh conditions. Metagenomics has emerged as powerful tools for the bioprospection and discovery of interesting bioactive molecules from extreme ecosystems with unique features, such as high temperatures. In this study, an innovative combination of function-driven screening of a compost metagenomic library and automatic extraction of halo areas with in-house MATLAB functions resulted in the identification of a promising clone with xylanase activity (LP4). The LP4 clone proved to be an effective xylanase producer under submerged fermentation conditions. Sequence and phylogenetic analyses revealed that the xylanase, Xyl4, corresponded to an endo-1,4-ß-xylanase belonging to glycosyl hydrolase family 10 (GH10). When xyl4 was expressed in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3), the enzyme activity increased about 2-fold compared to the LP4 clone. To get insight on the interaction of the enzyme with the substrate and establish possible strategies to improve its activity, the structure of Xyl4 was predicted, refined, and docked with xylohexaose. Our data unveiled, for the first time, the relevance of the amino acids Glu133 and Glu238 for catalysis, and a close inspection of the catalytic site suggested that the replacement of Phe316 by a bulkier Trp may improve Xyl4 activity. Our current findings contribute to enhancing the catalytic performance of Xyl4 towards industrial applications. KEY POINTS: • A GH10 endo-1,4-ß-xylanase (Xyl4) was isolated from a compost metagenomic library • MATLAB's in-house functions were developed to identify the xylanase-producing clones • Computational analysis showed that Glu133 and Glu238 are crucial residues for catalysis.

Functional and sequence-based metagenomics to uncover carbohydrate-degrading enzymes from composting samples.

The renewable, abundant , and low-cost nature of lignocellulosic biomass can play an important role in the sustainable production of bioenergy and several added-value bioproducts, thus providing alternative solutions to counteract the global energetic and industrial demands. The efficient conversion of lignocellulosic biomass greatly relies on the catalytic activity of carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes). Finding novel and robust biocatalysts, capable of being active under harsh industrial conditions, is thus imperative to achieve an economically feasible process. In this study, thermophilic compost samples from three Portuguese companies were collected, and their metagenomic DNA was extracted and sequenced through shotgun sequencing. A novel multi-step bioinformatic pipeline was developed to find CAZymes and characterize the taxonomic and functional profiles of the microbial communities, using both reads and metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) as input. The samples' microbiome was dominated by bacteria, where the classes Gammaproteobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria, and Balneolia stood out for their higher abundance, indicating that the degradation of compost biomass is mainly driven by bacterial enzymatic activity. Furthermore, the functional studies revealed that our samples are a rich reservoir of glycoside hydrolases (GH), particularly of GH5 and GH9 cellulases, and GH3 oligosaccharide-degrading enzymes. We further constructed metagenomic fosmid libraries with the compost DNA and demonstrated that a great number of clones exhibited ß-glucosidase activity. The comparison of our samples with others from the literature showed that, independently of the composition and process conditions, composting is an excellent source of lignocellulose-degrading enzymes. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comparative study on the CAZyme abundance and taxonomic/functional profiles of Portuguese compost samples. KEY POINTS: • Sequence- and function-based metagenomics were used to find CAZymes in compost samples. • Thermophilic composts proved to be rich in bacterial GH3, GH5, and GH9 enzymes. • Compost-derived fosmid libraries are enriched in clones with ß-glucosidase activity.

The T-box transcription factor brachyury behaves as a tumor suppressor in gliomas.

The oncogene brachyury (TBXT) is a T-box transcription factor that is overexpressed in multiple solid tumors and is associated with tumor aggressiveness and poor patient prognosis. Gliomas comprise the most common and aggressive group of brain tumors, and at the present time the functional and clinical impact of brachyury expression has not been investigated previously in these neoplasms. Brachyury expression (mRNA and protein) was assessed in normal brain (n = 67), glioma tissues (n = 716) and cell lines (n = 42), and further in silico studies were undertaken using genomic databases totaling 3115 samples. Our glioma samples were analyzed for copy number (n = 372), promoter methylation status (n = 170), and mutation status (n = 1569 tissues and n = 52 cell lines) of the brachyury gene. The prognostic impact of brachyury expression was studied in 1524 glioma patient tumors. The functional impact of brachyury on glioma proliferation, viability, and cell death was evaluated both in vitro and in vivo. Brachyury was expressed in the normal brain, and significantly downregulated in glioma tissues. Loss of brachyury was associated with tumor aggressiveness and poor survival in glioma patients. Downregulation of brachyury was not associated with gene deletion, promoter methylation, or inactivating point mutations. Brachyury re-expression in glioma cells was found to decrease glioma tumorigenesis by induction of autophagy. These data strongly suggest that brachyury behaves as a tumor suppressor gene in gliomas by modulating autophagy. It is important to note that brachyury constitutes an independent positive biomarker of patient prognosis. Our findings indicate that the role of brachyury in tumorigenesis may be tissue-dependent and demands additional investigation to guide rational interventions. © 2020 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Improved method for the extraction of high-quality DNA from lignocellulosic compost samples for metagenomic studies.

The world economy is currently moving towards more sustainable approaches. Lignocellulosic biomass has been widely used as a substitute for fossil sources since it is considered a low-cost bio-renewable resource due to its abundance and continuous production. Compost habitats presenting high content of lignocellulosic biomass are considered a promising source of robust lignocellulose-degrading enzymes. Recently, several novel biocatalysts from different environments have been identified using metagenomic techniques. A key point of the metagenomics studies is the extraction and purification of nucleic acids. Nevertheless, the isolation of high molecular weight DNA from soil-like samples, such as compost, with the required quality for metagenomic approaches remains technically challenging, mainly due to the complex composition of the samples and the presence of contaminants like humic substances. In this work, a rapid and cost-effective protocol for metagenomic DNA extraction from compost samples composed of lignocellulosic residues and containing high content of humic substances was developed. The metagenomic DNA was considered as representative of the global environment and presented high quality (> 99% of humic acids effectively removed) and sufficient quantity (10.5-13.8 µg g-1 of compost) for downstream applications, namely functional metagenomic studies. The protocol takes about 4 h of bench work, and it can be performed using standard molecular biology equipment and reagents available in the laboratory. KEY POINTS/HIGHLIGHTS: • Metagenomic DNA was successfully extracted from compost samples rich in humic acids • The improved protocol was established by optimizing the cell lysis method and buffer • Complete removal of humic acids was achieved through the use of activated charcoal • The suitability of the DNA was proven by the construction of a metagenomic library.

Euphol, a tetracyclic triterpene, from Euphorbia tirucalli induces autophagy and sensitizes temozolomide cytotoxicity on glioblastoma cells.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most frequent and aggressive type of brain tumor. There are limited therapeutic options for GBM so that new and effective agents are urgently needed. Euphol is a tetracyclic triterpene alcohol, and it is the main constituent of the sap of the medicinal plant Euphorbia tirucalli. We previously identified anti-cancer activity in euphol based on the cytotoxicity screening of 73 human cancer cells. We now expand the toxicological screening of the inhibitory effect and bioactivity of euphol using two additional glioma primary cultures. Euphol exposure showed similar cytotoxicity against primary glioma cultures compared to commercial glioma cells. Euphol has concentration-dependent cytotoxic effects on cancer cell lines, with more than a five-fold difference in the IC50 values in some cell lines. Euphol treatment had a higher selective cytotoxicity index (0.64-3.36) than temozolomide (0.11-1.13) and reduced both proliferation and cell motility. However, no effect was found on cell cycle distribution, invasion and colony formation. Importantly, the expression of the autophagy-associated protein LC3-II and acidic vesicular organelle formation were markedly increased, with Bafilomycin A1 potentiating cytotoxicity. Finally, euphol also exhibited antitumoral and antiangiogenic activity in vivo, using the chicken chorioallantoic membrane assay, with synergistic temozolomide interactions in most cell lines. In conclusion, euphol exerted in vitro and in vivo cytotoxicity against glioma cells, through several cancer pathways, including the activation of autophagy-associated cell death. These findings provide experimental support for further development of euphol as a novel therapeutic agent for GBM, either alone or in combination chemotherapy.

Helicobacter pylori Activates Matrix Metalloproteinase 10 in Gastric Epithelial Cells via EGFR and ERK-mediated Pathways.

Helicobacter pylori colonizes the human stomach and increases the risk for peptic ulcer disease and gastric carcinoma. H. pylori upregulates the expression and activity of several matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in cell lines and in the gastric mucosa. The aim of this study was to explore the mechanisms leading to upregulation of MMP10 in gastric epithelial cells induced by H. pylori Infection of gastric cells with H. pylori led to an increase in levels of MMP-10 messenger RNA, protein secretion, and activity. cagA knockout mutants or CagA phosphorylation-defective mutants failed to increase MMP10 expression. These results were confirmed in infection experiments with clinical isolates with known cagA status and in human gastric biopsy specimens. Treatment of cells with chemical inhibitors of the receptor tyrosine kinase EGFR and the kinase Src abrogated H. pylori-induced MMP10 expression. Inhibitors of ERK1/2 and JNK kinases abolished and significantly decreased H. pylori-induced MMP10 expression, respectively, whereas inhibition of the kinase p38 had no effect. Finally, inhibition of MMP10 expression by small interfering RNA led to a decrease in the gastric cell-invasive phenotype mediated by the infection. In conclusion, CagA-positive H. pylori strains stimulate MMP10 expression. MMP-10 modulation occurs via EGFR activation in a process that involves Src, ERK, and JNK pathways. MMP-10 may be implicated in H. pylori-mediated extracellular matrix remodeling.

Signaling through retinoic acid receptors in cardiac development: Doing the right things at the right times.

Retinoic acid (RA) is a terpenoid that is synthesized from vitamin A/retinol (ROL) and binds to the nuclear receptors retinoic acid receptor (RAR)/retinoid X receptor (RXR) to control multiple developmental processes in vertebrates. The available clinical and experimental data provide uncontested evidence for the pleiotropic roles of RA signaling in development of multiple embryonic structures and organs such eyes, central nervous system, gonads, lungs and heart. The development of any of these above-mentioned embryonic organ systems can be effectively utilized to showcase the many strategies utilized by RA signaling. However, it is very likely that the strategies employed to transfer RA signals during cardiac development comprise the majority of the relevant and sophisticated ways through which retinoid signals can be conveyed in a complex biological system. Here, we provide the reader with arguments indicating that RA signaling is exquisitely regulated according to specific phases of cardiac development and that RA signaling itself is one of the major regulators of the timing of cardiac morphogenesis and differentiation. We will focus on the role of signaling by RA receptors (RARs) in early phases of heart development. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Nuclear receptors in animal development.

Characterization of human NLZ1/ZNF703 identifies conserved domains essential for proper subcellular localization and transcriptional repression.

NET family members have recently emerged as important players in the development of multiple structures, from the trachea of fly larvae to the vertebrate eye and human breast cancers. However, their mechanisms of action are still poorly understood, and we lack a detailed characterization of their functional domains, as well as gene expression patterns-particularly in adult mammals. Here, we present a characterization of human NLZ1/ZNF703 (NocA-like zinc finger 1/Zinc finger 703), one of the two human NET family member genes. We show that the gene is ubiquitously expressed in adult human and mouse tissues, that three mRNA species with the same coding sequence are generated by alternative polyadenylation, and that the encoded protein contains six evolutionarily conserved domains, three of which are specific to NET proteins. Finally, we present functional evidence that these domains are necessary for proper subcellular distribution of and transcription repression by the NLZ1 protein, but not for its interaction with Groucho family co-repressors.

Iron metabolism in colorectal cancer: a balancing act.

BACKGROUND: Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most commonly diagnosed cancer and the second deadliest malignancy worldwide. Current dietary habits are associated with increased levels of iron and heme, both of which increase the risk of developing CRC. The harmful effects of iron overload are related to the induction of iron-mediated pro-tumorigenic pathways, including carcinogenesis and hyperproliferation. On the other hand, iron deficiency may also promote CRC development and progression by contributing to genome instability, therapy resistance, and diminished immune responses. In addition to the relevance of systemic iron levels, iron-regulatory mechanisms in the tumor microenvironment are also believed to play a significant role in CRC and to influence disease outcome. Furthermore, CRC cells are more prone to escape iron-dependent cell death (ferroptosis) than non-malignant cells due to the constitutive activation of antioxidant genes expression. There is wide evidence that inhibition of ferroptosis may contribute to the resistance of CRC to established chemotherapeutic regimens. As such, ferroptosis inducers represent promising therapeutic drugs for CRC. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES: This review addresses the complex role of iron in CRC, particularly in what concerns the consequences of iron excess or deprivation in tumor development and progression. We also dissect the regulation of cellular iron metabolism in the CRC microenvironment and emphasize the role of hypoxia and of oxidative stress (e.g. ferroptosis) in CRC. Finally, we underline some iron-related players as potential therapeutic targets against CRC malignancy.

Pro-inflammatory polarization and colorectal cancer modulate alternative and intronic polyadenylation in primary human macrophages.

Introduction: Macrophages are essential cells of the immune system that alter their inflammatory profile depending on their microenvironment. Alternative polyadenylation in the 3'UTR (3'UTR-APA) and intronic polyadenylation (IPA) are mechanisms that modulate gene expression, particularly in cancer and activated immune cells. Yet, how polarization and colorectal cancer (CRC) cells affect 3'UTR-APA and IPA in primary human macrophages was unclear. Methods: In this study, we isolated primary human monocytes from healthy donors, differentiated and polarized them into a pro-inflammatory state and performed indirect co-cultures with CRC cells. ChrRNA-Seq and 3'RNA-Seq was performed to quantify gene expression and characterize new 3'UTR-APA and IPA mRNA isoforms. Results: Our results show that polarization of human macrophages from naïve to a pro-inflammatory state causes a marked increase of proximal polyA site selection in the 3'UTR and IPA events in genes relevant to macrophage functions. Additionally, we found a negative correlation between differential gene expression and IPA during pro-inflammatory polarization of primary human macrophages. As macrophages are abundant immune cells in the CRC microenvironment that either promote or abrogate cancer progression, we investigated how indirect exposure to CRC cells affects macrophage gene expression and 3'UTR-APA and IPA events. Co-culture with CRC cells alters the inflammatory phenotype of macrophages, increases the expression of pro-tumoral genes and induces 3'UTR-APA alterations. Notably, some of these gene expression differences were also found in tumor-associated macrophages of CRC patients, indicating that they are physiologically relevant. Upon macrophage pro-inflammatory polarization, SRSF12 is the pre-mRNA processing gene that is most upregulated. After SRSF12 knockdown in M1 macrophages there is a global downregulation of gene expression, in particular in genes involved in gene expression regulation and in immune responses. Discussion: Our results reveal new 3'UTR-APA and IPA mRNA isoforms produced during pro-inflammatory polarization of primary human macrophages and CRC co-culture that may be used in the future as diagnostic or therapeutic tools. Furthermore, our results highlight a function for SRSF12 in pro-inflammatory macrophages, key cells in the tumor response.

Simultaneous studies of gene expression and alternative polyadenylation in primary human immune cells.

Transcription termination in eukaryotic cells involves the recognition of polyadenylation signals (PAS) that signal the site of pre-mRNA cleavage and polyadenylation. Most eukaryotic genes contain multiple PAS that are used by alternative polyadenylation (APA), a co-transcriptional process that increases transcriptomic diversity and modulates the fate of the mRNA and protein produced. However, current tools to pinpoint the relationship between mRNAs in different subcellular fractions and the gene expression outcome are lacking, particularly in primary human immune cells, which, due to their nature, are challenging to study. Here, we describe an integrative approach using subcellular fractionation and RNA isolation, chromatin-bound and nucleoplasmic RNA-Sequencing, 3' RNA-Sequencing and bioinformatics, to identify accurate APA mRNA isoforms and to quantify gene expression in primary human macrophages. Our protocol includes macrophage differentiation and polarization, co-culture with cancer cells, and gene silencing by siRNA. This method allows the simultaneous identification of macrophage APA mRNA isoforms integrated with the characterization of nuclear APA events, the identification of the molecular mechanisms involved, as well as the gene expression alterations caused by the cancer-macrophage crosstalk. With this methodology we identified macrophage APA mRNA signatures driven by the cancer cells that alter the macrophage inflammatory and transcriptomic profiles, with consequences for macrophage physiology and tumor evasion.

Brachyury Is Associated with Glioma Differentiation and Response to Temozolomide.

Glioblastomas (GBMs) are the most aggressive tumor type of the central nervous system, mainly due to their high invasiveness and innate resistance to radiotherapy and chemotherapy, with temozolomide (TMZ) being the current standard therapy. Recently, brachyury was described as a novel tumor suppressor gene in gliomas, and its loss was associated with increased gliomagenesis. Here, we aimed to explore the role of brachyury as a suppressor of glioma invasion, stem cell features, and resistance to TMZ. Using gene-edited glioma cells to overexpress brachyury, we found that brachyury-positive cells exhibit reduced invasive and migratory capabilities and stem cell features. Importantly, these brachyury-expressing cells have increased expression of differentiation markers, which corroborates the results from human glioma samples and in vivo tumors. Glioma cells treated with retinoic acid increased the differentiation status with concomitant increased expression of brachyury. We then selected TMZ-resistant (SNB-19) and TMZ-responsive (A172 and U373) cell lines to evaluate the role of brachyury in the response to TMZ treatment. We observed that both exogenous and endogenous brachyury activation, through overexpression and retinoic acid treatment, are associated with TMZ sensitization in glioma-resistant cell lines. In this study, we demonstrate that brachyury expression can impair aggressive glioma features associated with treatment resistance. Finally, we provide the first evidence that brachyury can be a potential therapeutic target in GBM patients who do not respond to conventional chemotherapeutic drugs.

BRAF mutation associated with other genetic events identifies a subset of aggressive papillary thyroid carcinoma.

PURPOSE: BRAF(V600E) mutation represents the most common oncogenic event in sporadic papillary thyroid cancer (PTC). There are, however, significant discrepancies regarding the overall frequency, its prevalence in PTC-variants, and its relationship with clinico-pathological parameters of poor outcome. Moreover, the impact of BRAF(V600E) mutants on tumour-related patient's death has not been evaluated. DESIGN: We analysed, by PCR-SSCP and/or PCR-direct sequencing, exons 8, 10, 11 and 15 of BRAF in 113 tumour samples from 49 PTC-patients. Matched lymph node metastases and/or distant metastases (DMs) were screened in 35 patients. Focal changes in the growth pattern or microscopic grade within the primary tumour (Pt) or the metastases were separately genotyped. Mutations at H-, K-, N-ras and PIK3CA exons 9 and 20 were also investigated. For comparison with PTC cases, the BRAF and Ras mutational status was evaluated in 89 specimens obtained from 24 poorly differentiated thyroid carcinomas (PDCs) and 36 anaplastic thyroid carcinomas (ATCs). RESULTS: BRAF(V600E) was found in 13/16 classical PTCs (CL-PTCs), 6/17 follicular variant PTCs (FV-PTCs) and 8/16 mixed (papillary/follicular) PTCs (Mx-PTCs), being significantly associated with CL-PTCs (P = 0.015). BRAF(V600E) segregated with metastatic PTC-cells in 43% of the patients, but only one DM disclosed the mutation. PTC-tumours featuring concurrent less-differentiated foci were BRAF wild-type in both components. Noteworthy, the frequency of BRAF mutations among PDCs and ATCs resulted considerably lower (16.6% and 25%, respectively) than in PTCs (55%). The prevalence of Ras mutations among PDCs and ATCs (46% and 36%, respectively) was, however, much higher than in PTCs (14%). Five (71%) of the patients who died of PTC displayed somatic mutations. Four of them had other gene alteration associated with BRAF(V600E) and the only one that did not, BRAF(V600E) was restricted to the Pt. The occurrence of BRAF(V600E) associated with other genetic events was an independent predictor of DMs during follow-up, recurrence and tumour-related death. Remarkably, two PDCs (8.3%) and five ATCs (14%) revealed concurrent BRAF and Ras mutations. CONCLUSION: BRAF(V600E)'alone' does not represent a marker for poor outcome, however, when associated with alterations in other genes identifies a subset of PTCs with increased risk of recurrence and decreased survival.

KRAS Oncogenic Signaling Extends beyond Cancer Cells to Orchestrate the Microenvironment.

KRAS is one of the most frequently mutated oncogenes in cancer, being a potent initiator of tumorigenesis, a strong inductor of malignancy, and a predictive biomarker of response to therapy. Despite the large investment to understand the effects of KRAS activation in cancer cells, pharmacologic targeting of KRAS or its downstream effectors has not yet been successful at the clinical level. Recent studies are now describing new mechanisms of KRAS-induced tumorigenesis by analyzing its effects on the components of the tumor microenvironment. These studies revealed that the activation of KRAS on cancer cells extends to the surrounding microenvironment, affecting the properties and functions of its constituents. Herein, we discuss the most emergent perspectives on the relationship between KRAS-mutant cancer cells and their microenvironment components. Cancer Res; 78(1); 7-14. ©2017 AACR.

Mutation of the PIK3CA gene in anaplastic thyroid cancer.

The phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase (PI3K) pathway is frequently activated in thyroid carcinomas through the constitutive activation of stimulatory molecules (e.g., Ras) and/or the loss of expression and/or function of the inhibitory PTEN protein that results in Akt activation. Recently, it has been reported that somatic mutations within the PI3K catalytic subunit, PIK3CA, are common (25-40%) among colorectal, gastric, breast, ovarian cancers, and high-grade brain tumors. Moreover, PIK3CA mutations have a tendency to cluster within the helical (exon 9) and the kinase (exon 20) domains. In this study, 13 thyroid cancer cell lines, 80 well-differentiated thyroid carcinomas of follicular (WDFC) and papillary (WDPC) type, and 70 anaplastic thyroid carcinomas (ATC) were investigated, by PCR-direct sequencing, for activating PIK3CA mutations at exons 9 and 20. Nonsynonymous somatic mutations were found in 16 ATC (23%), two WDFC (8%), and one WDPC (2%). In 18 of the 20 ATC cases showing coexisting differentiated carcinoma, mutations, when present, were restricted to the ATC component and located primarily within the kinase domain. Three cell lines of papillary and follicular lineage (K1, K2, and K5) were also found mutated. In addition, activation of Akt was observed in most of the ATC harboring PIK3CA mutations. These findings indicate that mutant PIK3CA is likely to function as an oncogene among ATC and less frequently well-differentiated thyroid carcinomas. The data also argue for a role of PIK3CA targeting in the treatment of ATC patients.

Genetic alterations in lung cancer: assessing limitations in routine clinical use.

Lung cancer is the most frequent cause of cancer mortality worldwide, responsible for approximately 1.1 million deaths per year. Median survival is short, both as most tumours are diagnosed at an advanced stage and because of the limited efficacy of available treatments. The development of tumour molecular gene- tics carries the promise of altering this state of affairs, as it should lead to a more precise classification of tumours, identify specific molecular targets for therapy and, above all, allow the development of new methods for early diagnosis. Despite numerous studies demonstrating the usefulness of molecular genetic techniques in the study of lung cancer, its routine clinical use in Portugal has, however, been limited. In this study, we used a p53 mutation screen in multi- ple clinical samples from a series of lung cancer patients to attempt to identify the main practical limitations to the integration of molecular genetics in routine clinical practice. Our results suggest that the main limiting factor is the availability of samples with good quality DNA; a problem that could be overcome by alterations in common sample collection and storage procedures.

It is all about location: how to pinpoint microorganisms and their functions in multispecies biofilms.

Multispecies biofilms represent the dominant mode of life for the vast majority of microorganisms. Bacterial spatial localization in such biostructures governs ecological interactions between different populations and triggers the overall community functions. Here, we discuss the pros and cons of fluorescence-based techniques used to decipher bacterial species patterns in biofilms at single cell level, including fluorescence in situ hybridization and the use of genetically modified bacteria that express fluorescent proteins, reporting the significant improvements of those techniques. The development of tools for spatial and temporal study of multispecies biofilms will allow live imaging and spatial localization of cells in naturally occurring biofilms coupled with metabolic information, increasing insight of microbial community and the relation between its structure and functions.

GRG5/AES interacts with T-cell factor 4 (TCF4) and downregulates Wnt signaling in human cells and zebrafish embryos.

Transcriptional control by TCF/LEF proteins is crucial in key developmental processes such as embryo polarity, tissue architecture and cell fate determination. TCFs associate with ß-catenin to activate transcription in the presence of Wnt signaling, but in its absence act as repressors together with Groucho-family proteins (GRGs). TCF4 is critical in vertebrate intestinal epithelium, where TCF4-ß-catenin complexes are necessary for the maintenance of a proliferative compartment, and their abnormal formation initiates tumorigenesis. However, the extent of TCF4-GRG complexes' roles in development and the mechanisms by which they repress transcription are not completely understood. Here we characterize the interaction between TCF4 and GRG5/AES, a Groucho family member whose functional relationship with TCFs has been controversial. We map the core GRG interaction region in TCF4 to a 111-amino acid fragment and show that, in contrast to other GRGs, GRG5/AES-binding specifically depends on a 4-amino acid motif (LVPQ) present only in TCF3 and some TCF4 isoforms. We further demonstrate that GRG5/AES represses Wnt-mediated transcription both in human cells and zebrafish embryos. Importantly, we provide the first evidence of an inherent repressive function of GRG5/AES in dorsal-ventral patterning during early zebrafish embryogenesis. These results improve our understanding of TCF-GRG interactions, have significant implications for models of transcriptional repression by TCF-GRG complexes, and lay the groundwork for in depth direct assessment of the potential role of Groucho-family proteins in both normal and abnormal development.

Helicobacter pylori induces gastric epithelial cell invasion in a c-Met and type IV secretion system-dependent manner.

Helicobacter pylori interacts with gastric epithelial cells, activating signaling pathways important for carcinogenesis. In this study we examined the role of H. pylori on cell invasion and the molecular mechanisms underlying this process. The relevance of H. pylori cag pathogenicity island-encoded type IV secretion system (T4SS), CagA, and VacA for cell invasion was also investigated. We found that H. pylori induces AGS cell invasion in collagen type I and in Matrigel invasion assays. H. pylori-induced cell invasion requires the direct contact between bacteria and cancer cells. H. pylori-mediated cell invasion was dependent on the activation of the c-Met receptor and on increased MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity. The abrogation of the c-Met receptor using the specific NK4 inhibitor or the silencing of c-Met expression with small interference RNA suppressed both cell invasion and MMP activity. Studies with different H. pylori strains revealed that cell invasion, c-Met tyrosine phosphorylation, and increased MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity were all dependent on the presence of a functional bacterial T4SS, but not on VacA cytotoxicity. Our findings demonstrate that H. pylori strains with a functional T4SS stimulate gastric epithelial cell invasion through a c-Met-dependent signaling pathway that comprises an increase in MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity.