Moving from features to functions: Bridging disciplinary understandings of urban environments to support healthy people and ecosystems.

Contact with nature can contribute to health and wellbeing, but knowledge gaps persist regarding the environmental characteristics that promote these benefits. Understanding and maximising these benefits is particularly important in urban areas, where opportunities for such contact is limited. At the same time, we are facing climate and ecological crises which require policy and practice to support ecosystem functioning. Policies are increasingly being oriented towards delivering benefits for people and nature simultaneously. However, different disciplinary understandings of environments and environmental quality present challenges to this agenda. This paper highlights key knowledge gaps concerning linkages between nature and health. It then describes two perspectives on environmental quality, based respectively in environmental sciences and social sciences. It argues that understanding the linkages between these perspectives is vital to enable urban environments to be planned, designed and managed for the benefit of both environmental functioning and human health. Finally, it identifies key challenges and priorities for integrating these different disciplinary perspectives.

A three-way interplay of DR4, autoantibodies and synovitis in biopsy-proven idiopathic inflammatory myositis.

The aim of this study was to determine the HLA and autoantibody associations of patients with histologically confirmed idiopathic inflammatory myositis (IIM). Serum and DNA were archived from South Australian patients with biopsy-proven dermatomyositis (DM), polymyositis (PM) and inclusion body myositis (IBM). HLA typing for Class I and II alleles was performed by serology and DNA-based technology, respectively, for 133 myositis patients and 166 Caucasian population-based controls. Myositis-specific and myositis-associated autoantibodies were detected by line immunoblot. All alleles of the 8.1AH were associated with myositis susceptibility. The B8-DR3 haplotype fragment conferred the strongest susceptibility (OR 2.9, 95% CI 1.8-4.6), and the B-DR region of other ancestral haplotypes was associated with myositis subgroups. Autoantibodies were present in 42/130 (32%) IIM patients and were more frequent in DM (11/17, 65%) than PM (23/70, 33%) or IBM (8/43, 19%), P = 0.002. Autoantibodies were associated with DRB1 03 (P = 0.0005) but also with DRB1 04 (P = 0.004). The frequency of autoantibodies in the three myositis subgroups mirrored the frequency of DR4. Polyarthralgia (±synovitis) was more common in DM/PM (30/76, 39%) than IBM (3/32, 9%), P = 0.004, and there was a strong ordinal association between the prevalence of autoantibodies and polyarthralgia ± synovitis (proportional OR = 5.5, 95% CI 2.3-13.7, P = 0.0004). The central MHC region confers the strongest susceptibility for IIM and also modulates disease phenotype. Our findings reveal a novel association of autoantibodies with DR4 and with arthralgia/synovitis in IIM and raise the possibility of a genetically (DR4) determined citrullination of myositis autoantigens expressed in muscle and synovium.

Diagnostic utility of anti-Ro52 detection in systemic autoimmunity.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence and diagnostic utility of monospecific anti-Ro52 (defined as an immune response against Ro-52 antigen in the absence of reactivity to Ro-60 antigen) reactivity in selected autoimmune diseases. STUDY DESIGN: Stored diagnostic non-consecutive serum samples obtained from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS), systemic sclerosis, idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIM), rheumatoid arthritis, primary biliary cirrhosis and mixed essential cryoglobulinaemia were analysed by line immunoassay to detect the presence of anti-Ro52 and other autoantibodies. RESULTS: Monospecific anti-Ro52 reactivity was found in 51 (12.7%) of the 402 samples tested. Anti-Ro52 was the most common serological marker in patients with IIM (35/147, 23.8%) and co-occurred with anti-Jo1 (10/18, 55.6%; p=0.02). The prevalence of anti-Ro52 reactivity was significantly more than anti-Ro60 reactivity in patients with IIM, systemic sclerosis, primary biliary cirrhosis, mixed essential cryoglobulinemia and pSS. The mean signal intensity of anti-Ro52 reactivity was significantly higher in pSS than SLE and associated with rheumatoid factor positivity. The mean signal intensity of anti-Ro52 correlated with anti-Ro60 and anti-La in pSS and SLE. CONCLUSIONS: Monospecific anti-Ro52 reactivity is not disease specific but may be of importance in patients with IIM. Furthermore, as anti-Ro52 reactivity is more prevalent than anti-Ro60 reactivity in certain autoimmune conditions, specific testing for their distinction in clinical practice is recommended.

Variability in depression prevalence in early rheumatoid arthritis: a comparison of the CES-D and HAD-D Scales.

BACKGROUND: Depression is common in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), however reported prevalence varies considerably. Two frequently used instruments to identify depression are the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scale, and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). The objectives of this study were to test if the CES-D and HADS-D (a) satisfy current modern psychometric standards for unidimensional measurement in an early RA sample; (b) measure the same construct (i.e. depression); and (c) identify similar levels of depression. METHODS: Data from the two scales completed by patients with early RA were fitted to the Rasch measurement model to show that (a) each scale satisfies the criteria of fit to the model, including strict unidimensionality; (b) that the scales can be co-calibrated onto a single underlying continuum of depression and to (c) examine the location of the cut points on the underlying continuum as indication of the prevalence of depression. RESULTS: Ninety-two patients with early RA (62% female; mean age = 56.3, SD = 13.7) gave 141 sets of paired CES-D and HAD-D data. Fit of the data from the CES-D was found to be poor, and the scale had to be reduced to 13 items to satisfy Rasch measurement criteria whereas the HADS-D met model expectations from the outset. The 20 items combined (CES-D13 and HADS-D) satisfied Rasch model expectations. The CES-D gave a much higher prevalence of depression than the HADS-D. CONCLUSION: The CES-D in its present form is unsuitable for use in patients with early RA, and needs to be reduced to a 13-item scale. The HADS-D is valid for early RA and the two scales measure the same underlying construct but their cut points lead to different estimates of the level of depression. Revised cut points on the CES-D13 provide comparative prevalence rates.

Goal neglect and Spearman's g: competing parts of a complex task.

In goal neglect, a person ignores some task requirement though being able to describe it. Goal neglect is closely related to general intelligence or C. Spearman's (1904) g (J. Duncan, H. Emslie, P. Williams, R. Johnson, & C. Freer, 1996). The authors tested the role of task complexity in neglect and the hypothesis that different task components in some sense compete for attention. In contrast to many kinds of attentional limits, increasing the real-time demands of one task component does not promote neglect of another. Neither does neglect depend on preparation for different possible events in a block of trials. Instead, the key factor is complexity in the whole body of knowledge specified in task instructions. The authors suggest that as novel activity is constructed, relevant facts, rules, and requirements must be organized into a "task model." As this model increases in complexity, different task components compete for representation, and vulnerable components may be lost. Construction of effective task models is closely linked to g.

The evidence for early intervention.

It is believed that rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is the most common, potentially treatable cause of disability in the Western world. A commonsense approach to the management of a persistent, progressive, damaging condition such as RA would seem to be intervention before the onset of damage, at a stage when disease still may be reversible. Such a phase of disease has been described as a "window of opportunity" for intervention. This article discusses the evidence for early intervention in RA.

Incidence and prevalence of idiopathic inflammatory myopathies in South Australia: a 30-year epidemiologic study of histology-proven cases.

AIM: To describe the epidemiology of biopsy-proven idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIM) in South Australia (SA). METHODS: Cases of IIM were ascertained by review of all muscle biopsy reports from the Neuropathology Laboratory, Hanson Institute (wherein all adult muscle biopsies in SA are reported) from 1980 to 2009. Clinical correlation of these patients by review of medical records was undertaken. SA population denominator numbers were obtained from the Australian Bureau of Statistics. RESULTS: Three hundred and fifty-two biopsy-proven cases of IIM were identified between 1980 and 2009. The overall annual incidence of IIM appeared to be rising with a mean incidence of eight cases per million population (95% CI: 7.2-8.9). This corresponded with an increasing annual incidence of inclusion body myositis (IBM) (prevalence of 50.5 cases per million population in 2009, 95% CI: 40.2-62.7). A female preponderance was noted in both dermatomyositis (DM) (F : M = 2.75 : 1.00) and polymyositis (PM) (F : M = 1.55 : 1.00) but gender distribution was almost equal in IBM (F : M = 1.1 : 1.0). Mean age at diagnosis for IBM (67.5 years) was higher than for DM (55.1 years) and PM (59.0 years). A higher proportion of DM patients reported living in urban dwellings and DM patients tended to be predominantly professionals. CONCLUSIONS: In SA there is an increasing incidence of IBM and the prevalence is one of the highest reported to date. This may reflect an increase in the number of biopsies performed, improved histological techniques or a genuine increase in incidence.

Idiopathic inflammatory myopathies: diagnostic criteria, classification and epidemiological features.

Idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIM) are a group of rare autoimmune disorders characterized by muscle inflammation and progressive weakness. The cause of IIM is unclear but it is believed that disease expression may be triggered by unknown factors in genetically predisposed individuals. Diagnosis is based on a combination of clinical, laboratory and electromyography findings. Muscle biopsy is the definitive diagnostic test. Research into IIM has been limited by the rarity of the disease, a somewhat insidious onset, difficulties with classification and diagnostic methods and heterogeneous study populations making cross-study evaluations difficult. This paper reviews the diagnostic and classification criteria of the IIM and examines epidemiological studies that have been performed, focusing on demographics.

Aspects of early arthritis. Biological therapy in early arthritis--overtreatment or the way to go?

The availability of newer, and more expensive, therapies for patients with rheumatoid arthritis has changed treatment beyond recognition. Disease remission is the goal for all new patients. Studies have shown that a combination of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-blocking drugs and methotrexate produces superior outcomes over monotherapy alone; however, use is limited by cost and potential side-effects. Currently, anti-TNF therapy is normally reserved for patients who have failed traditional disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs. The question that remains is whether TNF-blocking drugs are better used if given early; the high direct costs are countered by both direct and indirect savings in healthcare costs from optimal control of disease, and the benefits of early control outweigh the increased risk of infection and malignancy.

Use of prognostic markers in early rheumatoid arthritis to identify patients at risk of destructive disease.

As the benefits of early aggressive treatment of rheumatoid arthritis have become clear, and with the availability of newer (and more expensive) therapies, we need to be able to identify which patients are most at risk of destructive disease and poorer outcomes, and therefore, pinpoint which patients are most likely to benefit from intensive intervention at an early stage. A need for reliable prognostic markers is paramount in identifying these patients. Anticyclic citrullinated peptide antibody and serum inflammatory markers can precede the onset of disease by months and aid in both diagnosis and prognosis. Newer imaging modalities are now available and add to information gained from conventional radiography. This article reviews laboratory markers and imaging currently used in recognizing those patients at risk of nonreversible, destructive disease.

Second level nurses.

I became an EN in the hope of becoming a respected team member, more interested in bedside nursing than management nursing. I truly believed all nurses to be equal, with a different role to play, as this was the image portrayed in informative papers produced for would be nurses.

Antinuclear antibody testing in a regional immunopathology laboratory.

A systematic review has been undertaken of antinuclear antibody testing over a 6-year period in a regional immunotherapy laboratory servicing a population of 400 000. Twenty-eight per cent of the 20 205 antinuclear antibody tests performed on a hyperexpressing Ro transfected cellular substrate were positive (titre >/= 1 : 80) with the most common immunofluorescent patterns being homogeneous (39%), speckled (20%), mixed (17%), nucleolar (8%), Ro (7%) and centromere (4%). Ro antibody as detected by immunofluorescence was strongly concordant with anti-Ro detected by counter immunoelectrophoresis precipitation; of 261 anti-Ro counter immunoelectrophoresis precipitation positive patients surveyed, only 15 were missed and 20 masked (with homogenous pattern) by immunofluorescence. Ro antibodies were found in patients with a variety of immune disorders, particularly connective tissue disorders, whilst a clinical survey of the anticentromere sera revealed that 67% were derived from patients with limited scleroderma. Extractable nuclear antibodies and their characterization was performed on 10 939 occasions with 12.9% being positive with anti-Ro constituting 30.2%, anti-Ro/La 25.7%, unidentified precipitin line 17.8%, anti-ribo nuclear protein 12.5%, respectively, with anti-Scl70, anti-Jo-1 and anti-Sm and various combinations making up the remainder. Unidentified precipitin lines were particular prominent in patients with connective tissue disorders. DNA quantification was performed on 12 068 occasions with 11% giving elevated values, the majority from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Of these positive sera 44% also demonstrated one or more extractable nuclear antibodies and 25% anticardiolipin antibodies. Regular participation in a Quality Assurance Program revealed accurate and consistent performance of antinuclear antibody testing. In conclusion antinuclear antibody detection and characterization for systemic immune disorders can provide the clinician with useful diagnostic and prognostic information; it is important that the laboratory results are relevant, timely, accurate and precise. Systematic reviews as demonstrated in this report, can provide such evidence.