ATP8B1 is essential for maintaining normal hearing.

ATP8B1 deficiency is caused by autosomal recessive mutations in ATP8B1, which encodes the putative phospatidylserine flippase ATP8B1 (formerly called FIC1). ATP8B1 deficiency is primarily characterized by cholestasis, but extrahepatic symptoms are also found. Because patients sometimes report reduced hearing capability, we investigated the role of ATP8B1 in auditory function. Here we show that ATP8B1/Atp8b1 deficiency, both in patients and in Atp8b1(G308V/G308V) mutant mice, causes hearing loss, associated with progressive degeneration of cochlear hair cells. Atp8b1 is specifically localized in the stereocilia of these hair cells. This indicates that the mechanosensory function and integrity of the cochlear hair cells is critically dependent on ATP8B1 activity, possibly through maintaining lipid asymmetry in the cellular membranes of stereocilia.

Involvement of glycosaminoglycans in the attachment of pneumococci to nasopharyngeal epithelial cells.

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major bacterial pathogen involved in the development of otitis media. The pathogenic mechanisms of this middle ear disease, including the bacterial adherence mechanisms to the mucosal epithelial cells of the host, are poorly understood. In this study, the role of glycosaminoglycans in the adhesion of pneumococci to mucosal epithelial cells is examined. Both nasopharyngeal epithelium from rats and an oral epithelial cell line were used for pneumococcal adherence experiments. Preincubation of pneumococci with heparin, heparan sulfate (HS) and to a lesser extent, chondroitin 4-sulfate (C-4S), was found to inhibit attachment of S. pneumoniae to oral epithelial cells, while dermatan sulfate and hyaluronate did not interfere with pneumococcal binding. Enzymatic removal of HS moieties by heparinase III from nasopharyngeal epithelial cells abolished the attachment of pneumococci to nasopharyngeal epithelium. This study demonstrates that heparin, HS and C-4S are involved in pneumococcal binding to mucosal epithelial cells. This knowledge may contribute to the development of a new prophylactic strategy for otitis media.

Advances in understanding the pathogenesis of pneumococcal otitis media.

In this review, a state of the art on otitis media research is provided with emphasis on the role of Streptococcus pneumoniae in the pathogenesis of this disease. Articles have been selected by MEDLINE search supplemented with a manual crosscheck of bibliographies. Pathogenic mechanisms in middle ear and eustachian tube are described. Furthermore, pneumococcal characteristics and pneumococcus-host interactions are highlighted as well as the possible role of biofilms in persistence or recurrence of otitis media. Because of the availability of new techniques, an increasing number of pneumococcal features contributing in the pathogenesis of otitis media are identified and in-depth knowledge of pneumococcus-host interactions has been gained. The present advances in research on otitis media open up new perspectives for therapeutic or preventive strategies.

No evidence of hearing loss in pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1 patients.

CONCLUSIONS: The fact that pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1 (PHA-1) patients with a defect in the alpha subunit of epithelial sodium channels (ENaC) in the cochlea have normal hearing suggests compensation by alternative sodium transport mechanisms. Consequently, hearing loss due to defective cochlear transmembrane serine protease TMPRSS3 activity is likely to be related to its effect on proneurotrophin cleavage, indicating an action on neurological components of hearing. The normal hearing of PHA-1 patients with affected mineralocorticoid receptors, together with experimental results in animals, indicates that the mineralocorticoid aldosterone is not the most crucial regulator of sodium transport in the cochlea. OBJECTIVE: Profound hearing loss has been observed in patients with a defect in transmembrane serine protease TMPRSS3, the presumed activator of ENaCs. Renal ENaCs and their regulators, such as the mineralocorticoid receptors, are present in the cochlear structures involved in hearing. The aim of this study was to investigate whether PHA-1 patients with defects in these channels or regulators suffer from hearing impairment. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Pure-tone audiometry was performed in four cases with PHA-1 due to mutations in alphaENaC (n=2) or mineralocorticoid receptor (n=2). RESULTS: All examined cases had normal hearing at all tested frequencies.

Changes in ultrastructural characteristics of endolymphatic sac ribosome-rich cells of the rat during development.

It has recently been demonstrated that endolymphatic sac (ES) ribosome-rich (dark) cells respond to induced endolymph changes and are thus likely to be involved in endolymph homeostasis. Therefore, we studied the ultrastructural characteristics of rat ES ribosome-rich cells during development in order to determine the cellular distribution of organelles involved in protein metabolism, secretion and absorption, indicative for their contribution to endolymph homeostasis. During embryonal stages ribosome-rich cells contain a limited number and variety of organelles and are predominantly involved in the production of components for cell growth and differentiation. In the young adult stage (P60) three different states of ribosome-rich cells may be distinguished. State A resembles a cell with only limited metabolic activities whereas state B is characterized by numerous different intracellular organelles and is considered to be involved in production and secretion as well as absorption and degradation of complex proteins. A third cellular state, state C, is filled with phagolysosomes and contains very few other organelles. This is considered to be a final (pre)apoptotic state. Autoradiography data suggest that ES ribosome-rich cells are capable of synthesis and secretion of tyrosine-containing proteins and may thus be involved in regulation of the osmolarity of endolymph based on the capacity to bind cations as well as water molecules. In addition, ES ribosome-rich cells appear to synthesize and secrete fucosylated glycoproteins into the endolymph. In conclusion, the present data suggest that ES ribosome-rich cells are actively involved in endolymph homeostasis through secretion and absorption of complex proteins and it is hypothesized that they are able to adapt their function or activities in response to changes in endolymph composition.

Preferential expression of the G90 gene in post-mitotic cells during mouse embryonic development.

G90 is a novel mouse gene that does not belong to any known gene family. It has previously been shown that this gene is expressed exclusively in post-mitotic cells of the adult mouse intestine and testis, therefore suggesting a role in the control of proliferation and/or differentiation. Here we report the detailed spatio-temporal expression pattern of G90 during mouse embryonic development. We found G90 expression in specific structures of the developing head, namely the brain, inner and middle ear, olfactory epithelium, vomeronasal organ, nasopharynx, oropharynx, papillae of the tongue and oral cavity, pituitary gland and epiglottis. Interestingly, there was a clear correlation between G90 expression and absence of proliferation in most of the cells showing expression of this gene during embryonic development; this finding supported our functional hypothesis.

Antigenic as well as nonantigenic stimuli induce similar middle ear responses in the rat.

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: The observation that during otitis media many different types of micro-organisms have been cultured from effusions indicate that, once present in the middle ear cavity, most types of micro-organisms are able to trigger an inflammatory reaction leading to otitis media. The present study was designed to determine the middle ear response after injection of different substances into the middle ear cavity. STUDY DESIGN: To determine whether and to what extent an inflammatory response of the middle ear depends on the entering agent, the response in the tympanic cavity was studied by otomicroscopy and histological examination after inoculation of various substances. METHODS: Lewis rats were inoculated in transtympanic fashion either with live or heat-killed bacteria (pathogenic and nonpathogenic), Keyhole limpet hemocyanin, active charcoal, or saline. The mucosal response of the challenged middle ears was studied histologically. RESULTS: Irrespective of the inoculated substance, no essential differences in the mucosal response were found. The intensity of the inflammatory response was greater when live bacteria were inoculated. CONCLUSIONS: The present study demonstrates that any substance reaching the middle ear cavity is likely to induce otitis media. These observations emphasize the role of the eustachian tube as "porte d'entrée" in the pathogenesis of this disorder. Determination of specific aspects of the eustachian tube involved in protection or in facilitating bacterial translocation will be important for the understanding of the pathogenesis of otitis media and the subsequent development of new therapeutic strategies. In addition, elucidation of bacterial factors involved in the process of colonization and translocation will be of equal importance.

Differences in endolymphatic sac mitochondria-rich cells indicate specific functions.

OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS: The purpose of the study was to examine the specific involvement of endolymphatic sac mitochondria-rich cells in endolymph homeostasis. STUDY DESIGN: Transmission electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry were performed on the endolymphatic sac of young adult rats, and two important developmental stages were also investigated. METHODS: Ultrastructural characteristics of endolymphatic sac mitochondria-rich cells were studied more concisely and compared with renal mitochondria-rich cells (i.e., the intercalated cells). In addition, expression of cytokeratins 7 and 19 was determined. RESULTS: Until birth, only one type of mitochondria-rich cell is observed in the rat endolymphatic sac. In young adult animals, distinct differences in mitochondria-rich cell ultrastructure in the endolymphatic sac enables classification into subtypes or configurations. Comparison of endolymphatic sac mitochondria-rich cells with renal intercalated cells reveals striking similarities and provides additional information on their specific function in endolymph homeostasis. Furthermore, differences in cytokeratin expression are determined in endolymphatic sac mitochondria-rich cells. CONCLUSIONS: Differences in morphology of endolymphatic sac mitochondria-rich cells develop after birth and may reflect a distinct functional or physiological state of the cell. In analogy to renal intercalated cells, the distribution patterns of H+-adenosine triphosphatase and Cl-/HCO3- exchanger may differ between subtypes. We propose that subtype A mitochondria-rich cells, from which protruding A mitochondria-rich cells are the activated state, are involved in proton secretion (apical H+-adenosine triphosphatase) and thus are potential candidates for hearing loss accompanying renal tubular acidosis. Subtype B mitochondria-rich cells are the most likely candidates to be affected in Pendred syndrome because of the assumed function of pendrin as apical Cl-/HCO3- exchanger.

Effect of exogenous surfactant on ventilatory and clearance function of the rat's eustachian tube.

HYPOTHESIS AND BACKGROUND: The Eustachian tube has three important functions with respect to the middle ear: ventilation, clearance, and protection. Surfactants are assumed to be important to maintain these functions. The administration of exogenous surfactant may therefore be effective to improve the function of the Eustachian tube. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was designed to investigate the effect of exogenous surfactant on the function of the Eustachian tube in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Exogenous surfactant was administered into the middle ear of 10 otologically healthy rats, and 10 other rats received placebo. The effect on the opening and closing pressure (passive ventilatory function) and the dye clearance time (clearance function) of the rat's Eustachian tube was measured. RESULTS: A significant decrease in the opening pressure was seen after the administration of surfactant. Both surfactant and placebo caused an increase in the closing pressure. A serious disturbance of the dye clearance time was induced in 13 rats, and the test failed in 1 rat. In the remaining 6 rats, no significant differences in the dye clearance time were observed between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: Exogenous surfactant decreased the closing forces of the Eustachian tube even in otologically healthy rats. No significant effect on the mucociliary clearance was observed, but this may have resulted from the small number of rats. Additional randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials should be conducted to determine the clinical relevance of these changes and to further assess the effect of surfactant on the function of the Eustachian tube.

Improving planning, design, reporting and scientific quality of animal experiments by using the Gold Standard Publication Checklist, in addition to the ARRIVE guidelines.

Several studies have demonstrated serious omissions in the way research that use animals is reported. In order to improve the quality of reporting of animal experiments, the Animals in research: reporting in vivo experiments (ARRIVE) Guidelines were published in the British Journal of Pharmacology in August 2010. However, not only the quality of reporting of completed animal studies needs to be improved, but also the design and execution of new experiments. With both these goals in mind, we published the Gold Standard Publication Checklist (GSPC) in May 2010, a few months before the ARRIVE guidelines appeared. In this letter, we compare the GSPC checklist with the ARRIVE Guidelines. The GSPC describes certain items in more detail, which makes it both easier to use when designing and conducting an experiment and particularly suitable for making systematic reviews of animal studies more feasible. In order to improve not only the reporting but also the planning, design, execution and thereby, the scientific quality of animal experiments, we strongly recommend to all scientists involved in animal experimentation and to editors of journals publishing animal studies to take a closer look at the contents of both the ARRIVE guidelines and GSPC, and select the set of guidelines which is most appropriate for their particular situation.

Neurofilament localization and phosphorylation in the developing inner ear of the rat.

Detailed understanding of neurofilament protein distribution in the inner ear can shed light on regulatory mechanisms involved in neuronal development of this tissue. We assessed the spatio-temporal changes in the distribution of neurofilaments in the developing rat inner ear between embryonic day 12 and 30 days after birth, using antibodies against phosphorylated as well as non-phosphorylated light (NFL), medium (NFM) and heavy (NFH) neurofilament subunits. Our results show that during development, the onset of neurofilament expression in the rat inner ear is on embryonic day 12, earlier than previously shown. We demonstrate that neurofilament subunits of different molecular weight emerge in a developmental stage-dependent order. In addition, we determined that neurofilaments of the vestibular nerve mature earlier than neurofilaments of the cochlear nerve. Cochlear neurofilament maturation progresses in a gradient from base to apex, and from inner to outer hair cells. The sequential pattern of neurofilament expression we describe may help understand the consequences of certain mutations, and contribute to develop therapeutic strategies.

Detection of bacteria in healthy middle ears during cochlear implantation.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether free-living and/or biofilm bacteria are present in the putative sterile middle ear cavity before insertion of the electrode array during cochlear implantation. DESIGN: Prospective study. SETTING: Tertiary academic hospital. PATIENTS: The study included 45 healthy children (with or without a history of otitis media) undergoing cochlear implantation. INTERVENTIONS: Transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy was used to detect the presence of bacteria. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Presence of both free-living bacteria and biofilm bacteria on the epithelial surface of biopsy specimens of middle ear mucosa. RESULTS: A majority of all mucosal specimens from clinically healthy tympanic cavities displayed inflammatory areas as well as dispersed, nonmatrix-enclosed bacteria. Also, rarely, fragments of biofilms were found. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of bacteria in the tympanic cavity, which is generally assumed to be sterile in healthy individuals, may provide an explanation for infectious complications after cochlear implantation. However, the possibility that the electrode array of a cochlear implant will actually become contaminated during insertion is unlikely because of the small amounts and dispersed presence of bacteria, which may account for the relatively low incidence of infectious complications after cochlear implantation.

Genetic relatedness between pneumococcal populations originating from the nasopharynx, adenoid, and tympanic cavity of children with otitis media.

Previous studies have shown that Streptococcus pneumoniae exists in both middle ear effusions and the upper respiratory region from children with otitis media with effusion (OME), but it remains unclear whether these strains represent genetically identical clones. Therefore, it cannot be determined whether these bacteria originate from a common source. To determine the presence of pneumococci at different anatomical locations of OME patients, conventional culture and PCR techniques were used. To analyze the possible genetic relatedness between pneumococci from different anatomical sites, molecular typing by amplified fragment length polymorphism was utilized. The percentage of middle ear effusions of OME patients that are positive for pneumococci after PCR analysis (13%) was higher than after conventional culture (5%). Molecular fingerprints from pneumococci derived from two different anatomic sites within patients were very similar in 80% of OME patients and in 90% of acute otitis medium patients, indicating their genetic relatedness. Biofilm formation or pneumococcal L-forms probably play a role in OME, since culture-negative effusions prove to contain pneumococcal DNA. Bacteria involved in this process most likely originate from the nasopharynx since they show a close genetic relatedness with their nasopharyngeal counterparts.

Bacterial otitis media: a new non-invasive rat model.

This study describes the development of a physiological rat model for otitis media. The model is based on the assumption that bacteria, intranasally introduced into the nasopharynx, will be transferred into the middle ear cavity during swallowing provided that the ambient air pressure is higher than the middle ear pressure. This model demonstrates that small pressure changes, generated in a pressure cabin under controlled conditions, can be used as driving force for the transfer of bacteria into the middle ear cavity resulting in bilateral otitis media. Because invasive techniques or biochemical agents are not applied, this model is suited to investigate immunological aspects of otitis media, including the effects of vaccination.

Genetic disorders of transporters/channels in the inner ear and their relation to the kidney.

Inner ear physiology is reviewed with emphasis on features common to renal physiology. Genetic disorders in transporters/channels for chloride (ClC-K), bicarbonate (Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchanger), protons (H(+)-ATPase), sodium (ENaC, NKKC1, NBC3, NHE3), potassium (KCNQ1/KCNE1, Kcc4), and water (AQP4) in the inner ear and their relation to the kidney are discussed. Based on data from human disorders (with or without mouse counterparts) and mouse models (without human counterparts) this article focuses on the involvement of these transporters/channels in hearing loss.

Parenteral administration of medium- but not long-chain lipid emulsions may increase the risk for infections by Candida albicans.

Intravenous administration to volunteers of an emulsion of medium-chain lipids, but not of an emulsion of pure long-chain lipids or a placebo, increased the growth of Candida albicans in serum and modulated Candida-induced cytokine production by mononuclear cells in a way suggesting that medium-chain, but not long-chain, triglycerides increase the risk for infections by Candida.