The use and utility of specific nonpharmacological interventions for behavioral symptoms in dementia: an exploratory study.

OBJECTIVE: This study compares different nonpharmacological interventions for persons with behavioral symptoms and dementia on frequency of use and perceived efficacy in terms of change in behavior and interest. METHODS: Participants were 89 nursing home residents from six Maryland nursing homes with a mean age of 85.9 years (SD: 8.6 years). Research assistants presented interventions tailored to the participants' needs and preferences in a pre-intervention trial phase and in an intervention phase. The impact of each intervention on behavioral symptoms and on the person's interest was rated immediately after the intervention by a research assistant. RESULTS: The most utilized interventions in both trial and treatment phases were the social intervention of one-on-one interaction, simulated social interventions such as a lifelike doll and respite video, the theme intervention of magazine, and the sensory stimulation intervention of music. In contrast, the least utilized interventions in both phases were sewing, fabric book, and flower arrangement. Interventions with the highest impact on behavioral symptoms included one-on-one social interaction, hand massage, music, video, care, and folding towels. Other high impact interventions included walking, going outside, flower arranging, food or drink, sewing, group activity, book presentation, ball toss, coloring or painting, walking, and family video. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide initial directions for choosing specific interventions for persons with dementia and also demonstrate a methodology for increasing knowledge through ongoing monitoring of practice.

An analysis of the relationships among engagement, agitated behavior, and affect in nursing home residents with dementia.

BACKGROUND: Affect, behavior, and cognition can be considered as basic constructs that dictate human functioning, with intricate and bi-directional relationships among them. Prior to the present study, relationships among these constructs have not been systematically examined within the context of dementia. METHODS: Sample 1 contained 185 nursing home residents with a diagnosis of dementia. Sample 2 contained 117 residents with dementia, all of whom manifested agitated behaviors. Outcome measures included stimulus engagement (assessed via the Observational Measure of Engagement), affect (measured using Lawton's Modified Behavior Stream), and agitation/problem behavior (recorded via the Agitated Behaviors Mapping Instrument). Real time direct observations were collected during both stimulus presentation and control conditions. RESULTS: The relationship of engagement with positive affect, represented by the variables of interest and pleasure, were high and positive. No relationship emerged for engagement with negative affect or agitated behavior. A consistent positive relationship was found between agitated behavior and negative affect, and in Sample 2, a negative relationship between agitated behavior and both pleasure and interest. CONCLUSION: This is the first study to examine relationships among variables that are typically examined individually and, in doing so, has clarified the nomenclature used to describe the constructs of affect, engagement, and agitated behaviors in persons with dementia. The finding that the constructs of engagement, agitated behavior, and affect are multidimensional and that relationships among these constructs occur for some of the dimensions is important for the development of interventions and for clear communication in practice and research.

The comprehensive process model of engagement.

BACKGROUND: Engagement refers to the act of being occupied or involved with an external stimulus. In dementia, engagement is the antithesis of apathy. OBJECTIVE: The Comprehensive Process Model of Engagement was examined, in which environmental, personal, and stimulus characteristics impact the level of engagement. METHODS: : Participants were 193 residents of 7 Maryland nursing with a diagnosis of dementia. Stimulus engagement was assessed via the Observational Measure of Engagement, measuring duration, attention, and attitude to the stimulus. Twenty-five stimuli were presented, which were categorized as live human social stimuli, simulated social stimuli, inanimate social stimuli, a reading stimulus, manipulative stimuli, a music stimulus, task and work-related stimuli, and two different self-identity stimuli. RESULTS: All stimuli elicited significantly greater engagement in comparison to the control stimulus. In the multivariate model, music significantly increased engagement duration, whereas all other stimuli significantly increased duration, attention, and attitude. Significant environmental variables in the multivariate model that increased engagement were: use of the long introduction with modeling (relative to minimal introduction), any level of sound (especially moderate sound), and the presence of between 2 and 24 people in the room. Significant personal attributes included Mini-Mental State Examination scores, activities of daily living performance and clarity of speech, which were positively associated with higher engagement scores. CONCLUSIONS: Results are consistent with the Comprehensive Process Model of Engagement. Personal attributes, environmental factors, and stimulus characteristics all contribute to the level and nature of engagement, with a secondary finding being that exposure to any stimulus elicits engagement in persons with dementia.

Can persons with dementia be engaged with stimuli?

OBJECTIVES: To determine which stimuli are 1) most engaging 2) most often refused by nursing home residents with dementia, and 3) most appropriate for persons who are more difficult to engage with stimuli. METHODS: Participants were 193 residents of seven Maryland nursing homes. All participants had a diagnosis of dementia. Stimulus engagement was assessed by the Observational Measure of Engagement. RESULTS: The most engaging stimuli were one-on-one socializing with a research assistant, a real baby, personalized stimuli based on the person's self-identity, a lifelike doll, a respite video, and envelopes to stamp. Refusal of stimuli was higher among those with higher levels of cognitive function and related to the stimulus' social appropriateness. Women showed more attention and had more positive attitudes for live social stimuli, simulated social stimuli, and artistic tasks than did men. Persons with comparatively higher levels of cognitive functioning were more likely to be engaged in manipulative and work tasks, whereas those with low levels of cognitive functioning spent relatively more time responding to social stimuli. The most effective stimuli did not differ for those most likely to be engaged and those least likely to be engaged. CONCLUSION: Nursing homes should consider both having engagement stimuli readily available to residents with dementia, and implementing a socialization schedule so that residents receive one-on-one interaction. Understanding the relationship among type of stimulus, cognitive function, and acceptance, attention, and attitude toward the stimuli can enable caregivers to maximize the desired benefit for persons with dementia.

The underlying meaning of stimuli: Impact on engagement of persons with dementia.

In a previous article, we discussed a theoretical framework asserting that a combination of stimulus attributes, personal attributes and environmental attributes as well as interactions among these affects engagement with stimuli by persons with dementia [Cohen-Mansfield, J., Dakheel-Ali, M., Marx, M.S., 2009. Engagement in persons with dementia: The concept and its measurement. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 7, 299-307]. Based on this framework, we tested the impact on engagement of the personal meaning of stimuli, specifically examining work-like stimuli, stimuli based on the person's identity, and gender role-based activities. We hypothesized that having such meanings will render stimuli more engaging than stimuli without these meanings. Participants were 193 residents of 7 Maryland nursing homes. All participants had a diagnosis of dementia. Results confirmed the hypotheses, demonstrating that the meaning of the stimulus impacts engagement shown by persons with dementia. Interventions that involve objects or tasks with meaning specific to the person with dementia will be more likely to engage that person. Future research could explore more identity roles as well as other mechanisms affecting engagement.

The value of social attributes of stimuli for promoting engagement in persons with dementia.

The present study examined the impact of different attributes of social stimuli using the stimulus attributes aspect of the Comprehensive Process Model of Engagement ( Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 17:299-307). Participants were 193 residents of 7 Maryland nursing homes with a diagnosis of dementia. Stimuli were chosen to represent different levels of the following social attributes: social versus not social, realistic versus not realistic, animated versus nonanimated, human versus nonhuman, and alive versus not alive. Participants had significantly longer engagement, were significantly more attentive, and displayed a significantly more positive attitude with social stimuli than with nonsocial stimuli. Longer durations and higher ratings of attention and attitude were seen with realistic and animated stimuli as compared to their counterparts. Human and live stimuli resulted in significantly more engagement than their counterparts. Giving any social stimulus to the residents is preferable to providing none, and the social attributes of stimuli should be maximized.

Engaging nursing home residents with dementia in activities: the effects of modeling, presentation order, time of day, and setting characteristics.

We examined the impact of setting characteristics and presentation effects on engagement with stimuli in a group of 193 nursing home residents with dementia (recruited from a total of seven nursing homes). Engagement was assessed through systematic observations using the Observational Measurement of Engagement (OME), and data pertaining to setting characteristics (background noise, light, and number of persons in proximity) were recorded via the environmental portion of the Agitation Behavior Mapping Inventory (ABMI; Cohen-Mansfield, Werner, & Marx, (1989). An observational study of agitation in agitated nursing home residents. International Psychogeriatrics, 1, 153-165). Results revealed that study participants were engaged more often with moderate levels of sound and in the presence of a small group of people (from four to nine people). As to the presentation effects, multiple presentations of the same stimulus were found to be appropriate for the severely impaired as well as the moderately cognitively impaired. Moreover, modeling of the appropriate behavior significantly increased engagement, with the severely cognitively impaired residents receiving the greatest benefit from modeling. These findings have direct implications for the way in which caregivers could structure the environment in the nursing home and how they could present stimuli to residents in order to optimize engagement in persons with dementia.

The impact of past and present preferences on stimulus engagement in nursing home residents with dementia.

OBJECTIVES: We examined engagement with stimuli in 193 nursing home residents with dementia. We hypothesized that activities and stimuli based on a person's past and current preferences would result in more engagement than other activities/stimuli. METHOD: The expanded version of the self-identity questionnaire [Cohen-Mansfield, J., Golander, H. & Arheim, G. (2000)] was used to determine participants' past/present interests (as reported by relatives) in the following areas: art, music, babies, pets, reading, television, and office work. We utilized the observational measurement of engagement (Cohen-Mansfield, J., Dakheel-Ali, M., & Marx, M.S. (2009). RESULTS: Analysis revealed that residents with current interests in music, art, and pets were more engaged by stimuli that reflect these interests than residents without these interests. CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrate the utility of determining a person's preferences for stimuli in order to predict responsiveness. Lack of prediction for some stimuli may reflect differences between past preferences and activities that are feasible in the present.

The impact of a Naturally Occurring Retirement Communities service program in Maryland, USA.

Most older adults prefer to age in place and it is therefore vital to support them in maintaining a high quality of life in their place of residence. Many Naturally Occurring Retirement Communities (NORCs) have implemented services to fulfill a range of needs of their residents. Community Partners (CP) provided 58 NORC residents in six apartment buildings within two suburban neighborhoods in Maryland with health and social work services, activities and transportation services. Participants were compared with 70 residents who did not receive these services. Residents were assessed prior to initiation of services (e.g. transportation, social work and recreation) and after service usage through a membership program. Members had significantly increased satisfaction with recreational activities and social life in the community as well as significant decreases in depressed affect. Members' self-reports showed that they were more likely to get out of the house, felt less isolated, and were happier since joining CP activities. This study is unique in examining the impact of utilization of a variety of services for older persons, while comparing these individuals to a local group of community-dwelling older persons who are without NORC services.

Engagement in persons with dementia: the concept and its measurement.

PURPOSE: The aim of this article is to delineate the underlying premises of the concept of engagement in persons with dementia and present a new theoretical framework of engagement. SETTING/SUBJECTS: The sample included 193 residents of seven Maryland nursing homes. All participants had a diagnosis of dementia. METHODOLOGY: The authors describe a model of factors that affect engagement of persons with dementia. Moreover, the authors present the psychometric qualities of an assessment designed to capture the dimensions of engagement (Observational Measurement of Engagement). Finally, the authors detail plans for future research and data analyses that are currently underway. DISCUSSION: This article lays the foundation for a new theoretical framework concerning the mechanisms of interactions between persons with cognitive impairment and environmental stimuli. Additionally, the study examines what factors are associated with interest and negative and positive feelings in engagement.

The impact of personal characteristics on engagement in nursing home residents with dementia.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of personal attributes on engagement in persons with dementia. METHODS: Participants were 193 residents of seven Maryland nursing homes. All participants had a diagnosis of dementia. Cognitive functioning was assessed via the Mini-Mental State Examination, and engagement was assessed via the Observational Measure of Engagement. Data pertaining to activities of daily living were obtained from the Minimum Data Set. RESULTS: Women had longer mean engagement duration than men, and significant results were not seen with the other demographic variables. Significant, positive correlations were found between higher cognitive functioning and longer engagement duration, more attention, a more positive attitude, and a higher refusal rate. There was a positive and significant correlation between the comorbidity index and engagement duration, and between the number of medications and attention. All functional status variables yielded significance in a positive direction. Participants with poor hearing had a higher refusal rate. Cognitive status was the most consistent and potent predictor of engagement in this population. CONCLUSION: Despite a higher refusal rate among those with higher cognitive levels, their overall engagement with stimuli is higher. Caregivers should anticipate higher refusal rates in those with poor hearing, and therefore compensatory methods should be used in presenting stimuli in this population. The potent role of cognitive and functional status on engagement of persons with dementia underscores the importance of tailoring activities to nursing home residents' needs, interests, and limitations.

Dressing of cognitively impaired nursing home residents: description and analysis.

PURPOSE: Getting dressed is an activity that is of particular difficulty for many persons with dementia, given the need for hand-eye coordination, fine motor skills, and overall planning skills. Despite several studies concerning interventions to improve dressing behavior, very little is known about the dressing process as it is currently performed. The purpose of this study is to characterize the dressing activity of daily living (ADL) of nursing home residents suffering from dementia and thereby identify ways to improve the dressing process. DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed videotapes of dressing of 20 special care unit residents to describe the dressing process and the interaction between residents and staff members. RESULTS: Staff members completely dressed the residents in the majority of cases. Interaction between the staff members and the residents was considered insufficient in most sessions. IMPLICATIONS: The study identified possible intervention techniques, assistive devices, organizational routines, and environmental changes that may improve the dressing process. The results have implications that nursing homes may consider in their policies, care activities, staff training, and environment to facilitate safety, comfort, and satisfaction during the dressing process.

Sources of Discomfort in Persons with Dementia: Scale and Initial Results.

The Sources of Discomfort Scale (SODS) assesses discomfort manifestations based on source of discomfort, thus making it both distinct from and complementary to pain assessments for persons with dementia. Sources were categorized as pertaining to physical discomfort, to body position, and to environmental sources. Body position sources of discomfort were related to poor functional status and to pain. The SODS scores were not related to cognitive functioning, and sources of discomfort other than those pertaining to body position were not correlated with pain. This paper demonstrates a direct and enhanced method to detect the manifestations of discomfort separately from pain indicators in a population with advanced dementia. The determination of the source of discomfort has direct implications for intervention.

Which unmet needs contribute to behavior problems in persons with advanced dementia?

The Unmet Needs Model states that problem behaviors of people with dementia result from unmet needs stemming from a decreased ability to communicate those needs and to provide for oneself. The purpose of this study is to describe the unmet needs of persons with dementia exhibiting behavior problems. Eighty-nine residents with dementia from six Maryland nursing homes were assessed by research assistants and nursing assistants for their unmet needs using multiple assessment tools. Three unmet needs per resident were identified on average, with informants rating boredom/sensory deprivation, loneliness/need for social interaction, and need for meaningful activity as the most prevalent needs. Discomfort was associated with higher levels of verbally agitated behaviors (e.g., complaining). Based on results and independent ratings of pain, the authors estimate notable under-detection of discomfort and pain by both types of informants. The study demonstrates methodologies for uncovering unmet needs among persons with dementia and highlights the importance of developing programs that address those unmet needs, especially social and activity needs of nursing home residents. The detection of pain, and possibly that of discomfort, may require a different methodology.

What are the barriers to performing nonpharmacological interventions for behavioral symptoms in the nursing home?

OBJECTIVE: Behavioral symptoms are common in persons with dementia, and nonpharmacological interventions are recommended as the first line of therapy. We describe barriers to conducting nonpharmacological interventions for behavioral symptoms. DESIGN: A descriptive study of barriers to intervention delivery in a controlled trial. SETTINGS: The study was conducted in six nursing homes in Maryland. PARTICIPANTS: Participants were 89 agitated nursing home residents with dementia. INTERVENTION: Personalized interventions were developed using the Treatment Routes for Exploring Agitation decision tree protocol. Trained research assistants prepared and delivered the interventions. Feasibility of the interventions was determined. MEASUREMENTS: Barriers to Intervention Delivery Assessment, activities of daily living, cognitive functioning, depressed affect, pain, observed agitation, and observed affect. RESULTS: Barriers were observed for the categories of resident barriers (specifically, unwillingness to participate; resident attributes, such as unresponsive), barriers related to resident unavailability (resident asleep or eating), and external barriers (staff-related barriers, family-related barriers, environmental barriers, and system process variables). Interventions pertaining to food/drink and to 1-on-1 socializing were found to have the fewest barriers, whereas higher numbers of barriers occurred with puzzles/board games and arts and crafts activities. Moreover, when successful interventions were presented to participants after the feasibility period, we noted fewer barriers, presumably because barrier identification had been used to better tailor interventions to each participant and to the environment. CONCLUSION: Knowledge of barriers provides a tool by which to tailor interventions so as to anticipate or circumvent barriers, thereby maximizing intervention delivery.

Efficacy of nonpharmacologic interventions for agitation in advanced dementia: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: A randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial was undertaken to determine the efficacy of nonpharmacologic individualized interventions (individualized to address unmet needs such as boredom or pain) in decreasing agitation in persons with dementia. METHOD: Agitated nursing home residents with advanced dementia (from 9 nursing homes in 5 locations in Maryland, United States) were randomized into an intervention group (n = 89) and a placebo control group (n = 36). On the basis of data from baseline assessment, a systematic methodology for individualizing nonpharmacologic interventions, Treatment Routes for Exploring Agitation (TREA), was used with the intervention group: an unmet need was hypothesized, a corresponding treatment category was identified, and specifics of the treatment were chosen to fit the person's need, past identity, preferences, and abilities. (Unmet needs were hypothesized based on physician evaluations, structured staff interviews, relative questionnaires, direct observations of agitation with the Agitation Behavior Mapping Instrument [the primary outcome measure] and affect with Lawton's Modified Behavior Stream [the secondary outcome measure], and resident assessments.) TREA interventions were implemented for 2 weeks, and observations of agitation and affect were recorded. The study was conducted from June 2006 until December 2011. RESULTS: Relative to a control group, TREA interventions for unmet needs produced statistically significant declines in total (P < .001), physical nonaggressive (P < .001), and verbal agitation (P = .004) and significant increases in pleasure (P < .001) and interest (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first large randomized controlled trial to demonstrate the efficacy of TREA and one of only a few such trials of nonpharmacologic interventions for agitation in persons with dementia. The translation of these findings into practice is sorely needed and would require structural changes dedicating staff time to observing each agitated resident, determining unmet needs, obtaining appropriate intervention materials, conducting the individualized nonpharmacologic interventions, and evaluating results. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00820859.

What affects pleasure in persons with advanced stage dementia?

We examined the impact of environmental, person, and stimulus characteristics on pleasure in persons with dementia. Study participants were 193 residents of 7 Maryland nursing homes who were presented with 25 stimuli from these categories: live human social stimuli, live pet social stimuli, simulated social stimuli, inanimate social stimuli, a reading stimulus, manipulative stimuli, a music stimulus, task and work-related stimuli, and two different self-identity stimuli. Systematic observations of pleasure in the natural environment were conducted using Lawton's Modified Behavior Stream. Analysis showed that pleasure is related to stimulus category, personal attributes and environmental conditions. In the multivariate analyses, all types of social stimuli (live and simulated, human and nonhuman), self-identity stimuli, and music were related to significantly higher levels of pleasure than the control condition. Females and persons with higher ADL and communication functional status exhibited more pleasure. Pleasure was most likely to occur in environments with moderate noise levels. These results demonstrate that these nursing home residents are indeed capable of showing pleasure. Caregivers of nursing home residents with dementia should incorporate social, self-identity, and music stimuli into their residents' care plans so that eliciting pleasure from each resident becomes the norm rather than a random occurrence.

The relationships of environment and personal characteristics to agitated behaviors in nursing home residents with dementia.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the impact of personal attributes, environmental attributes, and the presentation of 9 categories of stimuli on agitation in nursing home residents with dementia. METHOD: Participants in this randomized, controlled, observational cross-sectional study were 193 residents of 7 nursing homes, all with a diagnosis of dementia, for whom we obtained data pertaining to cognitive functioning (via the Mini-Mental State Examination), performance of activities of daily living (Minimum Data Set), and role-identity/activities of past interest (Self-Identity Questionnaire). Environmental attributes (eg, noise, lighting) and direct observations of agitation (primary outcome) were recorded via the Agitation Behavior Mapping Inventory. Engagement was measured using the Observational Measurement of Engagement. Both agitation and engagement were assessed for each stimulus (including a control condition). RESULTS: Univariate findings (ie, for 1 explanatory variable at a time) showed agitation to be related to several personal attributes--ie, female gender was related to verbal agitation (P < .0001); low cognitive function was related to total, verbal, and physical agitation (P < .001 for each); low performance of activities of daily living was significantly related to all types of agitation (P < .01 for total agitation and P < .05 for each type of agitation); and unclear speech was significantly related to total agitation (P < .01). Eight of the 9 stimulus categories were significantly related to decreased levels of agitation, with ORs ranging from 0.37 (live human stimuli, P < .001) to 0.79 (inanimate social stimuli, P < .05). Higher levels of engagement were related to lower levels of agitation (P < .001 for total agitation). In the multivariate analyses, higher cognitive function (P < .001), male gender (P < .05), level of engagement with stimuli (eg, duration of engagement for 3 minutes or longer, P < .05), and all 9 stimulus categories, with the exception of music, were independently predictive of lower levels of agitation (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: The finding that both type of stimuli and engagement level with the stimuli were significant predictors of agitation underscores the importance of engagement as a determinant of agitation levels.

The impact of stimuli on affect in persons with dementia.

OBJECTIVE: To examine how presentation of different stimuli impacts affect in nursing home residents with dementia. METHOD: Participants were 193 residents aged 60 to 101 years from 7 Maryland nursing homes who had a diagnosis of dementia (derived from the medical chart or obtained from the attending physician). Cognitive functioning was assessed via the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), and data pertaining to activities of daily living were obtained through the Minimum Data Set. Affect was assessed using observations of the 5 moods from Lawton's Modified Behavior Stream. Baseline observations of affect were performed for comparisons. During the study, each participant was presented with 25 predetermined engagement stimuli in random order over a period of 3 weeks. Stimuli were categorized as live social, simulated social, manipulative, work/task-related, music, reading, or individualized to the participant's self-identity. The dates of data collection were 2005-2007. RESULTS: Differences between stimulus categories were significant for pleasure (F(6,144) = 25.137, P < .001) and interest (F(6,144) = 18.792, P < .001) but not for negative affect. Pleasure and interest were highest for the live social category, followed by self-identity and simulated social stimuli for pleasure, and for manipulative stimuli in terms of the effect on interest. The lowest levels of pleasure and interest were observed for music. Participants with higher cognitive function had significantly higher pleasure (F(1,97) = 6.27, P < .05). Although the general trend of the impact of the different categories was similar for different levels of cognitive function, there were significant differences in pleasure in response to specific stimuli (interaction effect: F(6,92) = 2.31, P < .05). Overall, social stimuli have the highest impact on affect in persons with dementia. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of the present study are important, as affect is a major indicator of quality of life and this study is the first to systematically examine the impact of specific types of stimuli on affect. As live social stimuli are not always readily available, particularly in busy nursing home environments, simulated social stimuli can serve as an effective substitute, and other stimuli should have a role in the activity tool kit in the nursing home. The relative ranking of stimuli was different for interest and pleasure. The findings demonstrate the differential effect of presentation of different types of stimuli on the affect of persons with dementia, and that, while the impact is greater on persons with higher levels of cognitive function, there is a different effect of varying stimuli even in persons with MMSE scores of 3 or lower. Future research should attempt to ascertain a person's degree of interest in stimuli prior to developing an intervention.

The impact of different dog-related stimuli on engagement of persons with dementia.

OBJECTIVE: To provide further empirical evaluation of the effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy in nursing home residents with dementia. METHODS: Participants were 56 residents of 2 suburban Maryland nursing homes and had a diagnosis. Activities of daily living performance was assessed via the minimum data set and cognitive functioning assessed using the Mini-Mental State Examination. Engagement with dog-related stimuli was systematically assessed via the observational measurement of engagement. RESULTS: Mean engagement duration was significantly lower for the small dog. Highest mean engagement duration was found for the puppy video, followed by the real dog and lowest was for the dog-coloring activity. Positive attitudes were found toward the real dogs, robotic dog, the puppy video, and the plush dog. No significant differences were found in engagement duration among our dog-related stimuli. CONCLUSIONS: Nursing homes should consider animal-assisted therapy and dog-related stimuli, as they successfully engage residents with dementia.