Swimmers' Effective Actions during the Backstroke Start Technique.

The analysis of the external forces of swimming starts has revealed how swimmers propel themselves out of the block, but data should be properly interpreted to fully understand force-generation mechanisms. This study aimed to assess horizontal and vertical forces in the backstroke start based on swimmers' structural and propulsive actions. Firstly, a simulated structural force was estimated by two transient backstroke-start inter-segmental realistic body positions: a maximally tucked position and an extended one (just before the hands-off and the take-off, respectively). Secondly, 10 competitive backstroke swimmers performed four 15 m maximal backstroke starts with the external forces estimated. Thirdly, the simulated structural force was subtracted from raw horizontal and vertical force data, measured between hands-off and take-off instants, resulting in the propulsive forces. The application of the algorithm has evidenced that backstrokers' horizontal and vertical simulated-structural-force components contributed to ~40% of total force during start propulsion (~0.2-0.12 s before the take-off), followed by the propulsive horizontal force increment and a progressive vertical component reduction (~0.05 s) with ~20° take-off angle. Based on these findings, researchers and coaches can better guide swimmers as to the proper mechanical strategies to achieve effectiveness in the backstroke start, and to improve direct transfer of resistance training programs.

Eccentric flywheel post-activation potentiation influences swimming start performance kinetics.

This study aimed to assess the effects of post-activation potentiation in the strength related variables of a kick start. Thirteen competitive swimmers performed three kick starts after a standardized warm up (denoted USUAL) and another after inducing post-activation through five isotonic repetitions on an eccentric flywheel (denoted PAP). A T-test was used to quantify differences between USUAL and PAP warm up. The best trial of each subject achieved by natural conditions (denoted PEAK) was compared with data obtained after PAP. An instrumented starting block with independent triaxial force plates, collected the strength variables related with the impulse at take off. Improvements in the vertical components of force were observed after PAP compared with USUAL, meanwhile no differences were detected on the horizontal components of it. The velocity at take off was higher after PAP compared with USUAL (4.32 ± 0.88 vs 3.93 ± 0.60 m*s-1; p = 0.02). No differences in force or velocity were detected comparing PAP with PEAK (4.13 ± 0.62 m*s-1, p = 0.11). The PAP warm-up increased vertical force and it was transferred to a higher resultant velocity at take-off. This improvement would equal the best result possible obtained in natural conditions after some trials.

Predicting centre of mass horizontal speed in low to severe swimming intensities with linear and non-linear models.

We aimed to compare multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural networks, radial basis function neural networks (RBF) and linear models (LM) accuracy to predict the centre of mass (CM) horizontal speed at low-moderate, heavy and severe swimming intensities using physiological and biomechanical dataset. Ten trained male swimmers completed a 7 × 200 m front crawl protocol (0.05 m.s-1 increments and 30 s intervals) to assess expiratory gases and blood lactate concentrations. Two surface and four underwater cameras recorded independent images subsequently processed focusing a three-dimensional reconstruction of two upper limb cycles at 25 and 175 m laps. Eight physiological and 13 biomechanical variables were inputted to predict CM horizontal speed. MLP, RBF and LM were implemented with the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm (feed forward with a six-neuron hidden layer), orthogonal least squares algorithm and decomposition of matrices. MLP revealed higher prediction error than LM at low-moderate intensity (2.43 ± 1.44 and 1.67 ± 0.60%), MLP and RBF depicted lower mean absolute percentage errors than LM at heavy intensity (2.45 ± 1.61, 1.82 ± 0.92 and 3.72 ± 1.67%) and RBF neural networks registered lower errors than MLP and LM at severe intensity (2.78 ± 0.96, 3.89 ± 1.78 and 4.47 ± 2.36%). Artificial neural networks are suitable for speed model-fit at heavy and severe swimming intensities when considering physiological and biomechanical background.

Are the new starting block facilities beneficial for backstroke start performance?

We aimed to analyse the handgrip positioning and the wedge effects on the backstroke start performance and technique. Ten swimmers completed randomly eight 15 m backstroke starts (four with hands on highest horizontal and four on vertical handgrip) performed with and without wedge. One surface and one underwater camera recorded kinematic data. Standardised mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were used. Handgrip positioning did not affect kinematics with and without wedge use. Handgrips horizontally positioned and feet over wedge displayed greater knee angular velocity than without it (SMD = -0.82; 95% CI: -1.56, -0.08). Hands vertically positioned and feet over wedge presented greater take-off angle (SMD = -0.81; 95% CI: -1.55, -0.07), centre of mass (CM) vertical positioning at first water contact (SMD = -0.97; 95% CI: -1.87, -0.07) and CM vertical velocity at CM immersion (SMD = 1.03; 95% CI: 0.08, 1.98) when comparing without wedge use. Swimmers extended the hip previous to the knee and ankle joints, except for the variant with hands vertically positioned without wedge (SMD = 0.75; 95% CI: -0.03, 1.53). Swimmers should preserve biomechanical advantages achieved during flight with variant with hands vertically positioned and wedge throughout entry and underwater phase.

Neuromuscular Activity of Upper and Lower Limbs during two Backstroke Swimming Start Variants.

A proficient start is decisive in sprint competitive swimming events and requires swimmers' to exert maximal forces in a short period to complete the task successfully. The aim of this study was to compare the electromyographic (EMG) activity in-between the backstroke start with feet positioned parallel and partially emerged performed with the hands on the highest horizontal and on the vertical handgrip at hands-off, take-off, flight and entry start phases. EMG comparisons between starting variants were supported by upper and lower limb joint angles at starting position and 15 m start time data. Following a four-week start training to familiarize participants with each start variant, 10 male competitive backstroke swimmers performed randomly six 15 m maximal trials, being three of each start variant. Surface EMG of Biceps Brachii, Triceps Brachii, Rectus Femoris, Biceps Femoris, Gastrocnemius Medialis and Tibialis Anterior was recorded and processed using the time integral EMG (iEMG). Eight video cameras (four surface and four underwater) were used to determine backstroke start phases and joint angles at starting position. EMG, joint angles and temporal parameters have not evidenced changes due to the different handgrips. Nevertheless, clear differences were observed in both variants for upper and lower limb muscles activity among starting phases (e.g. Biceps Brachii at take-off vs. flight phase, 15.17% ± 2.76% and 22.38% ± 4.25%; 14.24% ± 7.11% and 25.90% ± 8.65%, for variant with hands horizontal and vertically positioned, respectively). It was concluded that different handgrips did not affect EMG, kinematics and temporal profile in backstroke start. Despite coaches might plan similar strength training for both start variants, further attention should be given on the selection of proper exercises to maximize the contribution of relevant muscles at different starting phases. Key pointsAn effective swim start component (from the starting signal until the swimmers' vertex reaches the 15 m mark) is decisive in short distance events.In 2008, FINA approved the Omega OSB11 starting block (Swiss Timing Ltd., Switzerland) with two horizontal and one vertical backstroke start handgrip and currently swimmers can adopt different starting variants.The start performance is related to the exertion of maximal force in the shortest time, as other high-velocity movements; thus, the study of the current variants in-between them from a neuromuscular standpoint is indispensable for training support.The use of different handgrips did not affect upper and lower limb electromyographic activity; angular kinematics and overall 15 m backstroke start profile.Independent of the start variant selected, the role played by each upper and lower limb muscles at different starting phases should be considered in specific resistance training program to optimize backstroke start performance.

Benefits and limitations of isokinetic force assessments in swimmer's shoulders: A systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To indicate the benefits and limitations of the isokinetic test results for the performance of the main shoulder joint movements in swimmers, considering the different competitive levels, swimming techniques, race distances, and sex. METHODS: Search on the PubMed, CENTRAL, Medline, LILACS, and SCOPUS databases for the oldest records up to October 2022. Risk of bias, methodological quality, and level of evidence were evaluated based on the NHLBI checklist. RESULTS: 29 articles met the criteria and were included in this study. The quality analysis classified three as "good" and 26 as "regular", with a KAPPA index of 0.87. The main benefits found involved assessments of the clinical condition of the shoulder joint complex, relationships with performance, and reliability studies. The limitations found point to the participant's positioning in the instrument, use of angular velocity above 180°/s, and sample size. CONCLUSION: The use of the isokinetic dynamometer allows verifying the levels of strength, endurance, balance, and asymmetries among swimmers of different techniques, distances, competitive levels, and sex. Thus, it helps in the analysis and monitoring of the clinical conditions of swimmers' shoulder joints, contributing to the decision-making process of physiotherapists and coaches.

Magnitude and direction of shoulder torque asymmetries between different angular velocities in competitive swimmers.

Asymmetries in swimming can be the result of poor technique or coordination between limbs, reducing the ability to produce propulsive force and increasing resistive drag. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the magnitude and determine the consistency of isokinetic peak torque asymmetries between the angular velocities of in the shoulder joint movements of internal and external rotation, flexion, and extension. Twenty-one competitive swimmers performed concentric actions at 60°/s (3 repetitions) and 180°/s (20 repetitions) in the movements of internal and external rotation, flexion, and extension of the shoulders using an isokinetic dynamometer, with the peak torque and asymmetry index being common metrics across the tests. The results showed a greater magnitude of asymmetry in internal rotation (16.86 vs. 9.86; p = 0.007) and flexion (12.06 vs. 7.35; p = 0.008) at 60 vs. 180°/s, respectively. The agreement levels of the direction of asymmetries between angular velocities were fair to substantial (Kappa: 0.40 to 0.69). Evaluating isokinetic torque in different movements and angular velocities resulted in different levels of asymmetry. Muscle force asymmetries can impact propulsion efficiency and movement coordination during swimming. Understanding muscle asymmetries allows the development of targeted and individualised training programmes to correct strength imbalances.

Backstroke start kinematic and kinetic changes due to different feet positioning.

The backstroke swimming start international rules changed in 2005. This study compared two backstroke start variants, both with feet parallel to each other but in complete immersion and emersion. Six elite swimmers performed two sets of 4 maximal 15 m bouts, each set using one of the variants. The starts were videotaped in the sagittal plane with two cameras, providing bi-dimensional dual-media kinematic evaluation, and an underwater force plate and a handgrip instrumented with a load cell collected kinetic data. Backstroke start with feet immerged displayed greater centre-of-mass horizontal starting position, centre-of-mass horizontal velocity at hands-off and take-off angle. Backstroke start with feet emerged showed greater wall contact time, centre-of-mass horizontal and downward vertical velocity at take-off, lower limbs horizontal impulse, and centre-of-mass downward vertical velocity during flight phase. Backstroke start with feet immerged and emerged displayed similar centre-of-mass horizontal water reach, back arc angle and 5 m starting time. Irrespective of the swimmer's feet positioning, coaches should emphasise each variant's mechanical advantages during the wall contact phases. Furthermore, the maintenance of those advantages throughout the flight should be stressed for better backstroke start performance.

Back plate and wedge use and individual ventral and dorsal swimming start performance: a systematic review.

Individual starts for ventral and dorsal swimming events have changed. After the introduction of back plate and wedge, some studies (mainly on ventral starts) have aimed to clarify their benefits and optimal application. This systematic review is aimed at a critical appraise of the literature on the main findings for back plate and wedge usage. We explored the databases of PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science and conducted a manual search on the reference list of papers. We based our search on the quality scale of the National Health Institutes and found 25 studies that met the eligibility criteria and that scored 7.75 ± 1.18 and 8.0 ± 0.71 on fair-quality studies addressing kick and backstroke starts. Kick start has shown faster start time comparing with grab and track starts by reducing block time and increasing horizontal take-off velocity. Backstroke start using the wedge improved performance through a greater centre of mass vertical position at take-off, horizontal and vertical position at entry and underwater velocity. Swimmers have adopted technical variants of kick and backstroke start by changing block set-up and stance, which should be monitored considering anthropometrics and strength abilities.

Kinematic analysis of three water polo front crawl styles.

During water polo matches, players use different front crawl styles. The purpose of this study was to conduct a kinematic analysis of three water polo front crawl styles: front crawl with head under water, front crawl with head above water, and front crawl when leading the ball. Ten proficient water polo players performed 3 × 15 m sprints in each front crawl style, which were recorded three-dimensionally by two surface and four underwater cameras. The results showed no differences in performance and several kinematic characteristics among the water polo front crawl styles. However, front crawl when leading the ball showed shorter stroke length and greater stroke frequency. Front crawl with head underwater presented greater maximal finger depth and elbow angle at mid-stroke position. Front crawl with head above water and when leading the ball showed greater trunk obliquity and maximal depth of right and left foot, and shorter kick stroke frequency. The findings suggest that proficient players learn to master front crawl with head above water to achieve top velocity. Despite the common use of the front crawl with head underwater as the basis for water polo fast displacement, coaches should emphasize the use of the specific water polo styles to attain high performance.

Effects of fatigue on kinematical parameters during submaximal and maximal 100-m butterfly bouts.

We aimed to analyze the effects of fatigue on kinematical parameters during submaximal and maximal butterfly. Seven female swimmers performed two randomized 100-m butterfly bouts, at submaximal velocity and at maximal velocity in 25-m pool. During the 1st and 4th laps of each 100 m, kinematic data were recorded by two video cameras (above and below water) on the sagittal plane. Velocity, stroke length, stroke frequency, intracyclic horizontal velocity variation, horizontal and vertical displacements of the hand and foot and stroke phases' duration were computed for each stroke cycle. Velocity, stroke length, stroke frequency were lower for 4th than 1st lap, at both intensities. Dropped elbow and foot vertical amplitude of 1st and 2nd downbeats were higher for 4th than 1st lap, at both intensities. At submaximal and maximal intensity, swimmers spent more time during push and recovery phases. At submaximal intensity, swimmers experienced fewer difficulties to cope with fatigue between 1st and 4th lap, which allowed the maintenance of intracyclic velocity variation. However, at maximal intensity, swimmers were probably more fatigued and, as a consequence, less mechanically efficient, showing an increase in intracyclic velocity variation.

Individual performances and biochemical pathways as altered by field-realistic exposures of current-use fungicides and their mixtures in a non-target species, Gammarus fossarum.

Persistent fungicides, which are widely applied to agricultural soils to protect crops, are frequently detected in freshwaters because of hydraulic transfer, possibly resulting in unintentional adverse effects on wildlife. However, the ecotoxicity of fungicides in aquatic species remains scarcely assessed at environmentally relevant concentrations, and there is scant information available on their combined effects. This study aims at investigating multi-level changes elicited by two currently used fungicides, boscalid and tebuconazole, in the amphipod Gammarus fossarum. In microcosms, gammarids were exposed for 72 h to fungicides tested individually or in binary mixture at 0.01, 0.1 and 1.0 µg/L to monitor individual performances (locomotion, respiration and amplexus formation) and biochemical parameters (involved in energy metabolism, growth, moulting and cell stress). This range of exposure concentrations was field-realistic and largely lower than local environmental quality standards for the protection of aquatic wildlife. Overall, results showed that single and combined exposures altered the mobility and respiratory activity of individuals. At the cellular level, boscalid inhibited energy-based biomarkers whereas tebuconazole led to cytotoxicity associated with reduced antioxidant defences. In binary mixtures, the biochemical responses were mainly driven by the presence of boscalid. Multi-variable analyses, integrating individual alterations and cellular impairments alike, confirmed the relevance of the multi-level approach in forecasting the toxicity of fungicides and their mixtures towards other aquatic species. This study demonstrates dose-related sublethal effects of fungicides on multiple functional traits in an ecosystem engineer under realistic exposure scenarios, highlighting the harmful signs of these toxicants. Such sublethal alterations could thus constitute reliable tools for the early diagnosis of the organisms' health and the ecological status of agriculturally impacted hydrosystems.

Identification of non-validated endocrine disrupting chemical characterization methods by screening of the literature using artificial intelligence and by database exploration.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) represents a critical public health threat. Several adverse health outcomes (e.g., cancers, metabolic and neurocognitive/neurodevelopmental disorders, infertility, immune diseases and allergies) are associated with exposure to EDCs. However, the regulatory tests that are currently employed in the EU to identify EDCs do not assess all of the endocrine pathways. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to explore the literature, guidelines and databases to identify relevant and reliable test methods which could be used for prioritization and regulatory pre-validation of EDCs in missing and urgent key areas. METHODS: Abstracts of articles referenced in PubMed were automatically screened using an updated version of the AOP-helpFinder text mining approach. Other available sources were manually explored. Exclusion criteria (computational methods, specific tests for estrogen receptors, tests under validation or already validated, methods accepted by regulatory bodies) were applied according to the priorities of the French Public-privatE Platform for the Pre-validation of Endocrine disRuptors (PEPPER) characterisation methods. RESULTS: 226 unique non-validated methods were identified. These experimental methods (in vitro and in vivo) were developed for 30 species using diverse techniques (e.g., reporter gene assays and radioimmunoassays). We retrieved bioassays mainly for the reproductive system, growth/developmental systems, lipogenesis/adipogenicity, thyroid, steroidogenesis, liver metabolism-mediated toxicity, and more specifically for the androgen-, thyroid hormone-, glucocorticoid- and aryl hydrocarbon receptors. CONCLUSION: We identified methods to characterize EDCs which could be relevant for regulatory pre-validation and, ultimately for the efficient prevention of EDC-related severe health outcomes. This integrative approach highlights a successful and complementary strategy which combines computational and manual curation approaches.

Lateral kinetic proficiency and asymmetry in backstroke start performed with horizontal and vertical handgrips.

We aimed to compare preferred, non-preferred, hand, foot kinetics and their asymmetry in two backstroke start variants. Complementarily, asymmetries were correlated to the resultant take-off velocity. Nine swimmers completed four 15 m backstroke starts with horizontal handgrips and four with vertical handgrips on an instrumented block (right, left hand, foot forces and impulse, normalised to swimmers' weight and time). We applied handedness and footedness questionnaires. Preferred hand and foot depicted a very and most likely moderate to large increase on horizontal force before hands-off (-0.51 ± 0.10; -0.47 ± 0.10; 0.87 ± 0.15; 0.90 ± 0.18 (N/N)) and a very and most likely large to very large increase on horizontal impulse (-0.28 ± 0.05; -0.26 ± 0.04; 0.50 ± 0.03; 0.51 ± 0.04 (N/N)*(s/s)) in both variants. Non-preferred hand and foot showed a very likely large to moderate increase (95% to 99%) on vertical and lateral impulse (0.30 ± 0.03; 0.31 ± 0.03; 0.07 ± 0.04; 0.05 ± 0.03 (N/N)*(s/s)) in both variants. The horizontal handgrip demonstrated likely moderate greater horizontal forces asymmetry on hands in the starting signal (-20.39 ± 7.16 (N/N), 92%), before hands-off (-71.46 ± 24.48 (N/N), 90%) and impulse asymmetry (-21.13 ± 5.80 (N/N), 94%). Asymmetry and resultant take-off velocity in both variants were strongly associated (r = -0.733 and -0.833 for feet horizontal impulse). Kinetics lateralisation was noticed in backstroke start and asymmetry hampers desirable performance.

Single and combined effects of insecticides on multi-level biomarkers in the non-target amphipod Gammarus fossarum exposed to environmentally realistic levels.

Aquatic media are ultimate recipients of various contaminants including pesticides pervasively applied in agrosystems. Characterizing the ecotoxicity of pesticides and their mixtures to aquatic wildlife at field-realistic levels is thus crucial for environmental risk assessment. This study aims at assessing the effects of two current-use insecticides, imidacloprid and chlorpyrifos, on Gammarus fossarum using multi-level biomarkers. In microcosms, gammarids were exposed for 72 h to insecticides tested individually or in mixture at 0.01, 0.1 and 1 µg/L of each chemical. Multi-metric responses were assessed at the individual level (behavioural traits: locomotion, respiration and amplexus formation) and the cellular level (enzymes involved in growth, moulting, digestion and cell stress). The results showed insecticide-elicited behavioural and biochemical responses from the lowest concentration of 0.01 µg/L. Overall, single exposures stimulated behavioural traits and inhibited enzymatic activities, highlighting subtle impacts at different organizational levels but these were not dose related. For binary mixtures, antagonistic effects (i.e. less-than-additive) on biomarkers were mainly observed when compared with single exposures. Multi-variable analyses indicated the complementarity of behavioural and biochemical biomarkers in identifying sublethal biological alterations and dose-dependent multiple action sites of insecticides. Besides, the mortality observed only for the mixture at 1 µg/L demonstrated a high lethal potential of insecticides in a simple binary combination. To conclude, this study demonstrates disturbances in individual performances and cellular impairments occurring at environmentally realistic exposure levels in a non-target wild species. Since the sublethal effects, such as those identified with this multi-biomarker approach, could lead to long-term alterations in population dynamics of agricultural areas, they constitute promising early endpoints for risk assessment of insecticides.

Evaluation isometric and isokinetic of trunk flexor and extensor muscles with isokinetic dynamometer: A systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To systematically review the literature analyzing the reliability and characteristics of the protocols of isokinetic and isometric evaluation of the trunk flexor and extensor muscles with isokinetic dynamometer. METHODS: This is a systematic review using PubMed, CENTRAL, LILACS, PEDro and SCOPUS databases, searching the oldest records up to December 2019. The risk of bias, the methodological quality and the level of evidence were evaluated using the COSMIN checklist. RESULTS: Fourteen articles have met the criteria and have been included in this study. All the articles performed an isometric or isokinetic evaluation of the trunk muscles with the isokinetic dynamometer and presented an analysis of the protocol's reliability using the intraclass correlation coefficient. Five articles had excellent reliability (0.93-0.98). Most of the studies presented doubtful and inconsistent psychometric values for reliability, because they used a short period between tests. The level of evidence to the fourteen selected articles for reliability was moderate. CONCLUSIONS: Although the studies present limitations in methodological quality, it was possible to identify highly reliable patterns in the parameters employed and to present recommendations for the assessment of trunk flexor and extensor muscles in the isokinetic dynamometer, both for assessment in the sitting position and orthostatic.

Do traditional and reverse swimming training periodizations lead to similar aerobic performance improvements?

BACKGROUND: The purpose of the present research was to analyze the modifications on aerobic swimming performance indicators after performing traditional and reverse training periodizations (TTP and RTP, respectively). METHODS: Seventeen trained swimmers were divided into two groups: one group (N.=7) performed 10 weeks of TTP (based on high volumes and an increased intensity during the program) and the second one (N.=10) was involved in a similar period of RTP (based on low volumes and high intensity during the entire program). Velocity (v), heart rate (HR) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) at the intensity of 4 mmol/L of blood lactate concentration, v, HR, RPE, stroke rate, stroke length and stroke index at the minimal intensity that elicits maximal oxygen uptake (vVO2max) and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) were analyzed pre- and post-training intervention. RESULTS: Stroke index significantly increased (2.9±0.3 vs. 3.1±0.2; P<0.05) and stroke rate and RPE at vVO2max significantly decreased after performing TTP. In the RTP group, VO2max significantly increased (50.9±6.6 vs. 54.1±4.7 mL/min/kg). CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, RTP performed for 10 weeks was more effective than TTP to increase the VO2max in trained swimmers, but TTP yields a higher swimming efficiency, probably due to the higher volume of technical training performed during the training program.

Modelling and Predicting Backstroke Start Performance Using Non-Linear and Linear Models.

Our aim was to compare non-linear and linear mathematical model responses for backstroke start performance prediction. Ten swimmers randomly completed eight 15 m backstroke starts with feet over the wedge, four with hands on the highest horizontal and four on the vertical handgrip. Swimmers were videotaped using a dual media camera set-up, with the starts being performed over an instrumented block with four force plates. Artificial neural networks were applied to predict 5 m start time using kinematic and kinetic variables and to determine the accuracy of the mean absolute percentage error. Artificial neural networks predicted start time more robustly than the linear model with respect to changing training to the validation dataset for the vertical handgrip (3.95 ± 1.67 vs. 5.92 ± 3.27%). Artificial neural networks obtained a smaller mean absolute percentage error than the linear model in the horizontal (0.43 ± 0.19 vs. 0.98 ± 0.19%) and vertical handgrip (0.45 ± 0.19 vs. 1.38 ± 0.30%) using all input data. The best artificial neural network validation revealed a smaller mean absolute error than the linear model for the horizontal (0.007 vs. 0.04 s) and vertical handgrip (0.01 vs. 0.03 s). Artificial neural networks should be used for backstroke 5 m start time prediction due to the quite small differences among the elite level performances.

Biophysical Determinants of Front-Crawl Swimming at Moderate and Severe Intensities.

PURPOSE: To conduct a biophysical analysis of the factors associated with front-crawl performance at moderate and severe swimming intensities, represented by anaerobic-threshold (vAnT) and maximal-oxygen-uptake (vV̇O2max) velocities. METHODS: Ten high-level swimmers performed 2 intermittent incremental tests of 7 × 200 and 12 × 25 m (through a system of underwater push-off pads) to assess vAnT, and vV̇O2max, and power output. The 1st protocol was videotaped (3D reconstruction) for kinematic analysis to assess stroke frequency (SF), stroke length (SL), propelling efficiency (ηP), and index of coordination (IdC). V̇O2 was measured and capillary blood samples (lactate concentrations) were collected, enabling computation of metabolic power. The 2nd protocol allowed calculating mechanical power and performance efficiency from the ratio of mechanical to metabolic power. RESULTS: Neither vAnT nor vV̇O2max was explained by SF (0.56 ± 0.06 vs 0.68 ± 0.06 Hz), SL (2.29 ± 0.21 vs 2.06 ± 0.20 m), ηP (0.38 ± 0.02 vs 0.36± 0.03), IdC (-12.14 ± 5.24 vs -9.61 ± 5.49), or metabolic-power (1063.00 ± 122.90 vs 1338.18 ± 127.40 W) variability. vV̇O2max was explained by power to overcome drag (r = .77, P ≤ .05) and ηP (r = .72, P ≤ .05), in contrast with the nonassociation between these parameters and vAnT; both velocities were well related (r = .62, P ≤ .05). CONCLUSIONS: The biomechanical parameters, coordination, and metabolic power seemed not to be performance discriminative at either intensity. However, the increase in power to overcome drag, for the less metabolic input, should be the focus of any intervention that aims to improve performance at severe swimming intensity. This is also true for moderate intensities, as vAnT and vV˙O2max are proportional to each other.