Expansion of CD4dimCD8+ T cells characterizes macrophage activation syndrome and other secondary HLH.

CD8+ T-cell activation has been demonstrated to distinguish patients with primary and infection-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) from patients with early sepsis. We evaluated the activation profile of CD8+ T cells in patients with various forms of secondary HLH (sHLH), including macrophage activation syndrome (MAS). Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from children with inactive systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis (sJIA, n = 17), active sJIA (n = 27), MAS in sJIA (n = 14), infection-associated HLH (n = 7), and with other forms of sHLH (n = 9) were analyzed by flow cytometry. Compared with patients with active sJIA, in patients with MAS and sHLH of different origins, beside a significant increase in the frequency of CD38high/HLA-DR+CD8+ T cells, we found a significant increase in the frequency of CD8+ T cells expressing the CD4 antigen (CD4dimCD8+ T cells). These cells expressed high levels of the activation markers CD38 and HLA-DR, suggesting they were a subset of CD38high/HLA-DR+CD8+ T cells, as well as of the activation/exhaustion markers CD25, PD1, CD95, and interferon-γ. The frequency of CD4dimCD8+ T cells strongly correlated with most of the laboratory parameters of MAS severity and with circulating levels of CXCL9 and interleukin-18. These findings were confirmed in a prospective replication cohort in which no expansion of any particular T-cell receptor Vß family in CD3+ T cells of patients with sHLH was found. Finally, frequency of CD4dimCD8+, but not of CD38high/HLA-DR+CD8+ T cells, significantly correlated with a clinical severity score, further supporting the involvement of these cells in MAS/sHLH pathogenesis.

Characterization of AR-CGD female patient with a novel homozygous deletion in CYBC1 gene presenting with unusual clinical phenotype.

Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) is a human IEI caused by mutations in genes encoding the NADPH oxidase subunits, the enzyme responsible for the respiratory burst. CGD patients have severe life-threatening infections, hyperinflammation and immune dysregulation. Recently, an additional autosomal recessive AR-CGD (type 5) caused by mutations in CYBC1/EROS gene was identified. We report a AR-CGD5 patient with a novel loss of function (LOF) homozygous deletion c.8_7del in the CYBC1 gene including the initiation ATG codon that leads to failure of CYBC1/EROS protein expression and presenting with an unusual clinical manifestation of childhood-onset sarcoidosis-like disease requiring multiple immunosuppressive therapies. We described an abnormal gp91phox protein expression/function in the patient's neutrophils and monocytes (about 50%) and a severely compromised B cell subset (gp91phox < 15%; DHR+ < 4%). Our case-report emphasized the importance of considering a diagnosis of AR-CGD5 deficiency even in absence of typical clinical and laboratory findings.

Canakinumab in systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis: real-world data from a retrospective Italian cohort.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to use real-world data to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of canakinumab in Italian patients with systemic JIA (sJIA). METHODS: A retrospective multicentre study of children with sJIA was performed. Clinical features, laboratory parameters and adverse events were collected at baseline, and 6 and 12 months after starting canakinumab. The primary outcome measure of effectiveness was clinically inactive disease (CID) off glucocorticoids (GCs) treatment at 6 months. RESULTS: A total of 80 children from 15 Italian centres were analysed. Of the 12 patients who started canakinumab in CID while receiving anakinra, all maintained CID. Of the 68 with active disease at baseline, 57.4% achieved CID off GCs at 6 months and 63.8% at 12 months. In univariate analysis, the variables significantly related to non-response were number of active joints (NAJs) ≥5, history of macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) and disease duration. Multivariate analysis confirmed the association between non-response and NAJs ≥5 [odds ratio (OR) 6.37 (95% CI: 1.69, 24.02), P = 0.006] and between non-response and history of MAS [OR 3.53 (95% CI: 1.06, 11.70), P = 0.039]. No serious adverse events were recorded in this series. There were two cases of MAS during canakinumab, leading to a rate of 2.9 episodes per 100 patient years. CONCLUSION: We have confirmed, using real-world data, the efficacy of canakinumab in sJIA in a multicentric cohort. History of MAS and higher NAJ were associated with lower probability of achieving CID.

Tocilizumab for massive refractory pleural effusion in an adolescent with systemic lupus erythematosus.

BACKGROUND: Pleural effusion in systemic lupus erythematous (SLE) is a common symptom, and recent studies demonstrated that IL-6 has a pivotal role in its pathogenesis. CASE PRESENTATION: We report a case of a 15 years old Caucasian boy with a history of persistent pleural effusion without lung involvement or fever. Microbiological and neoplastic aetiologies were previously excluded. Based on the presence of pleuritis, malar rash, reduction of C3 and C4 levels and positivity of antinuclear antibody (ANA) and anti-double stranded DNA (dsDNA), the diagnosis of juvenile SLE (JSLE) was performed. Treatment with high dose of intravenous glucocorticoids and mycophenolate mofetil was started with partial improvement of pleural effusion. Based on this and on adults SLE cases with serositis previously reported, therapy with intravenous tocilizumab (800 mg every two weeks) was started with prompt recovery of pleural effusion. CONCLUSION: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first case of JSLE pleuritis successfully treated with tocilizumab.

Diagnosis of congenital Hyperinsulinism can occur not only in infancy but also in later age: a new flow chart from a single center experience.

BACKGROUND: Congenital Hyperinsulinism typically occurs with a neonatal hypoglycemia but can appear even in childhood or in adolescence with different types of glucose metabolism derangements. Current diagnostic algorithms don't take into account cases with a late presentation. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Clinical and laboratory data of twenty-two subjects diagnosed at Federico II University of Naples have been described: patients have been divided according to the molecular defect into channel defects, metabolic defects and unidentified molecular defects. A particular focus has been made on three cases with a late presentation. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Late presentation cases may not be identified by previous diagnostic algorithms. Consequently, it seems appropriate to design a new flow-chart starting from the age of presentation, also considering that late presentation cases can show glucose metabolism derangements other than hypoglycaemic crises such as diabetes, glucose intolerance, postprandial hypoglycaemia and gestational diabetes.

Eosinophilic Esophagitis in Children: Clinical Findings and Diagnostic Approach.

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is an emerging chronic immune and antigen-mediated clinicopathologic disease. During the last 2 decades, the incidence of this condition in children has increased significantly, thanks to practitioners for creating the awareness and higher use of diagnostic endoscopy. We have analysed paediatric literature on EoE focusing on the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical findings and diagnostic approach. EoE is pathogenically related to a Th2 inflammation characterized by a mixed IgE and non-IgEmediated reaction to food and/or environmental agents. This leads to esophageal dysfunction and remodeling accompanied by subepithelial fibrosis. EoE can be presented with several range of gastrointestinal symptoms, including regurgitation, vomiting, feeding difficulties or feeding refusal in infants and toddlers, as well as heartburn, dysphagia and food bolus impaction in older children and adults. The diagnostic suspicion is based on the presence of chronic symptoms of esophgeal dysfunction and esophageal eosinophilia characterised histologically by a significant eosinophilic infiltration of the oesophageal mucosa (>15 eosinophils per high powered field). In this review, we will provide an update on clinical presentation and diagnostic approach to EoE in children. We emphasized on the relevant aspects of the new clinical condition termed "PPI responsive esophageal eosinophilia", as entities distinct from EoE and the role of PPI trial in the diagnostic workup, therefore we proposed a new diagnostic algorithm.

COnsensus on Pediatric Pain in the Emergency Room: the COPPER project, issued by 17 Italian scientific societies.

In the pediatric setting, management of pain in the emergency department - and even in common care - is a challenging exercise, due to the complexity of the pediatric patient, poor specific training of many physicians, and scant resources.A joint effort of several Italian societies involved in pediatrics or in pain management has led to the definition of the PIPER group and the COPPER project. By applying a modified Delphi method, the COPPER project resulted in the definition of 10 fundamental statements. These may represent the basis for improving the correct management of children pain in the emergency department.

Enteroscopy in children.

INTRODUCTION: Device-assisted enteroscopy is a new endoscopic technique for the evaluation of small bowel in adults and children. Data in pediatric population are limited. This review aims to identify diagnostic and therapeutic benefits of enteroscopy in children. METHODS: We have analysed paediatric literature on device-assisted enteroscopy focusing on indications, technical aspects and complications, with attention given to adult publications that may be applicable to the paediatric population. RESULTS: Obscure gastrointestinal bleeding, Crohn's disease and small bowel polyps are the main indications of enteroscopy in children. Device-assisted enteroscopy has high diagnostic yield for the main paediatric indications, but MR-enterography and capsule endoscopy should be used beforehand in diagnostic work-up to better identify candidates for enteroscopy and to improve its diagnostic and therapeutic yield. Major complications are rare and mostly related to therapeutic procedures. CONCLUSION: Despite limited data in the paediatric population, device-assisted enteroscopy represents a useful and safe endoscopic technique in children. Its use, combined with MR-enterography and capsule endoscopy, allows identification and treatment of many of the small bowel paediatric diseases with a low risk of complications.

Outcomes of congenital cytomegalovirus disease following maternal primary and non-primary infection.

BACKGROUND: Natural history and long term prognosis of congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) disease according to maternal primary versus non-primary infection are not clearly documented. OBJECTIVE: To investigate clinical, laboratory and neuroimaging features at onset and long term outcome of congenitally CMV-infected patients born to mothers with non-primary infection compared with a group of patients born to mothers with primary infection. STUDY DESIGN: Consecutive neonates born from 2002 to 2015 were considered eligible for the study. Patients underwent clinical, laboratory and instrumental investigation, and audiologic and neurodevelopmental evaluation at diagnosis and during the follow up. RESULTS: A cohort of 158 congenitally infected children was analyzed. Ninety-three were born to mothers with primary CMV infection (Group 1) and 65 to mothers with a non-primary infection (Group 2). Eighty-eight infants had a symptomatic congenital CMV disease: 49 (46.2%) in Group 1 and 39 (60%) in Group 2. Maternal and demographic characteristics of patients of Group 1 and Group 2 were comparable, with the exception of prematurity and a 1-min Apgar score less than 7, which were more frequent in Group 2 compared to Group 1. Prevalence of neuroimaging findings did not significantly differ between the two groups. An impaired neurodevelopmental outcome was observed in 23.7% of patients of Group 1 and in 24.6% cases of Group 2. Similarly, the frequency of hearing loss did not differ between the two groups (25.8% versus 26.2%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Neurodevelopmental and hearing sequelae are not affected by the type of maternal CMV infection. Preventing strategies should be developed for both primary and non-primary infections.

Celiac Disease in an Adoptive Child with Recurrent Giardia Infection.

Celiac disease (CD) is an inflammatory disease of the small intestine. A complete management and differential diagnosis of such disease includes food intolerances, intestinal infections, and irritable bowel syndrome. We describe an 8-years-old adoptive girl from Congo with negative medical history. Patient followed for recurrent abdominal pain and diarrhea associated to Giardia infection, unresponsive to antiparasitic therapy. Persistence of symptoms despite antiparasitic therapy, prompted us to perform: 1- Blood screening of Celiac disease, which was negative; 2- Genetic evaluation of celiac disease, which revealed the presence of HLA-DQ2 heterodimer; and 3- Esophagogastroduodenoscopy, which showed duodenal villous atrophy and crypt hyperplasia, associated with Helicobacter Pylori infection. The child was treated in accordance with international recommendations using a Gluten-free diet and specific antibiotics, which lead to the resolution of the symptoms. Our patient's clinical history seems peculiar, considering that, recurrent Giardiasis may mimic the symptoms of Celiac disease and may simulate clinical and histological picture of active Celiac disease. Early diagnosis may help prevent the complications of untreated celiac disease.

Relapsing Campylobacter jejuni Systemic Infections in a Child with X-Linked Agammaglobulinemia.

X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) is a primary immunodeficiency of the humoral compartment, due to a mutation in the Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK) gene, characterized by a severe defect of circulating B cells and serum immunoglobulins. Recurrent infections are the main clinical manifestations; although they are especially due to encapsulated bacteria, a specific association with Campylobacter species has been reported. Here, we report the case of a boy with XLA who presented with relapsing Campylobacter jejuni systemic infections. His clinical history supports the hypothesis of the persistence of C. jejuni in his intestinal tract. Indeed, as previously reported, XLA patients may become chronic intestinal carriers of Campylobacter, even in absence of symptoms, with an increased risk of relapsing bacteraemia. The humoral defect is considered to be crucial for this phenomenon, as well as the difficulties to eradicate the pathogen with an appropriate antibiotic therapy; drug resistance is raising in Campylobacter species, and the appropriate duration of treatment has not been established. C. jejuni should always be suspected in XLA patients with signs and symptoms of systemic infection, and treatment should be based on antibiogram to assure the eradication of the pathogen.