LysMD3 is a type II membrane protein without an in vivo role in the response to a range of pathogens.

Germline-encoded receptors recognizing common pathogen-associated molecular patterns are a central element of the innate immune system and play an important role in shaping the host response to infection. Many of the innate immune molecules central to these signaling pathways are evolutionarily conserved. LysMD3 is a novel molecule containing a putative peptidoglycan-binding domain that has orthologs in humans, mice, zebrafish, flies, and worms. We found that the lysin motif (LysM) of LysMD3 is likely related to a previously described peptidoglycan-binding LysM found in bacteria. Mouse LysMD3 is a type II integral membrane protein that co-localizes with GM130+ structures, consistent with localization to the Golgi apparatus. We describe here two lines of mLysMD3-deficient mice for in vivo characterization of mLysMD3 function. We found that mLysMD3-deficient mice were born at Mendelian ratios and had no obvious pathological abnormalities. They also exhibited no obvious immune response deficiencies in a number of models of infection and inflammation. mLysMD3-deficient mice exhibited no signs of intestinal dysbiosis by 16S analysis or alterations in intestinal gene expression by RNA sequencing. We conclude that mLysMD3 contains a LysM with cytoplasmic orientation, but we were unable to define a physiological role for the molecule in vivo.

Utilization of Host Polyamines in Alternatively Activated Macrophages Promotes Chronic Infection by Brucella abortus.

Treatment of intracellular bacterial pathogens with antibiotic therapy often requires a long course of multiple drugs. A barrier to developing strategies that enhance antibiotic efficacy against these pathogens is our poor understanding of the intracellular nutritional environment that maintains bacterial persistence. The intracellular pathogen Brucella abortus survives and replicates preferentially in alternatively activated macrophages (AAMs); however, knowledge of the metabolic adaptations promoting exploitation of this niche is limited. Here we show that one mechanism promoting enhanced survival in AAMs is a shift in macrophage arginine utilization from production of nitric oxide (NO) to biosynthesis of polyamines, induced by interleukin 4 (IL-4)/IL-13 treatment. Production of polyamines by infected AAMs promoted both intracellular survival of B. abortus and chronic infection in mice, as inhibition of macrophage polyamine synthesis or inactivation of the putative putrescine transporter encoded by potIHGF reduced both intracellular survival in AAMs and persistence in mice. These results demonstrate that increased intracellular availability of polyamines induced by arginase-1 expression in IL-4/IL-13-induced AAMs promotes chronic persistence of B. abortus within this niche and suggest that targeting of this pathway may aid in eradicating chronic infection.

Vitamin A deficiency impairs neutrophil-mediated control of Salmonella via SLC11A1 in mice.

In sub-Saharan Africa, multidrug-resistant non-typhoidal Salmonella serovars are a common cause of fatal bloodstream infection. Malnutrition is a predisposing factor, but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. Here we show that vitamin A deficiency, one of the most prevalent micronutrient deficits afflicting African children, increases susceptibility to disseminated non-typhoidal Salmonella disease in mice and impairs terminal neutrophil maturation. Immature neutrophils had reduced expression of Slc11a1, a gene that encodes a metal ion transporter generally thought to restrict pathogen growth in macrophages. Adoptive transfer of SLC11A1-proficient neutrophils, but not SLC11A1-deficient neutrophils, reduced systemic Salmonella burden in Slc11a1-/- mice or mice with vitamin A deficiency. Loss of terminal granulopoiesis regulator CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein ϵ (C/EBPϵ) also decreased neutrophil-mediated control of Salmonella, but not that mediated by peritoneal macrophages. Susceptibility to infection increased in Cebpe-/- Slc11a1+/+ mice compared with wild-type controls, in an Slc11a1-expression-dependent manner. These data suggest that SLC11A1 deficiency impairs Salmonella control in part by blunting neutrophil-mediated defence.

The IRE1α-XBP1 Signaling Axis Promotes Glycolytic Reprogramming in Response to Inflammatory Stimuli.

Immune cells must be able to adjust their metabolic programs to effectively carry out their effector functions. Here, we show that the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress sensor Inositol-requiring enzyme 1 alpha (IRE1α) and its downstream transcription factor X box binding protein 1 (XBP1) enhance the upregulation of glycolysis in classically activated macrophages (CAMs). The IRE1α-XBP1 signaling axis supports this glycolytic switch in macrophages when activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation or infection with the intracellular bacterial pathogen Brucella abortus. Importantly, these different inflammatory stimuli have distinct mechanisms of IRE1α activation; while Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) supports glycolysis under both conditions, TLR4 is required for activation of IRE1α in response to LPS treatment but not B. abortus infection. Though IRE1α and XBP1 are necessary for maximal induction of glycolysis in CAMs, activation of this pathway is not sufficient to increase the glycolytic rate of macrophages, indicating that the cellular context in which this pathway is activated ultimately dictates the cell's metabolic response and that IRE1α activation may be a way to fine-tune metabolic reprogramming. IMPORTANCE The immune system must be able to tailor its response to different types of pathogens in order to eliminate them and protect the host. When confronted with bacterial pathogens, macrophages, frontline defenders in the immune system, switch to a glycolysis-driven metabolism to carry out their antibacterial functions. Here, we show that IRE1α, a sensor of ER stress, and its downstream transcription factor XBP1 support glycolysis in macrophages during infection with Brucella abortus or challenge with Salmonella LPS. Interestingly, these stimuli activate IRE1α by independent mechanisms. While the IRE1α-XBP1 signaling axis promotes the glycolytic switch, activation of this pathway is not sufficient to increase glycolysis in macrophages. This study furthers our understanding of the pathways that drive macrophage immunometabolism and highlights a new role for IRE1α and XBP1 in innate immunity.

Virulence factors perforate the pathogen-containing vacuole to signal efferocytosis.

Intracellular pathogens commonly reside within macrophages to find shelter from humoral defenses, but host cell death can expose them to the extracellular milieu. We find intracellular pathogens solve this dilemma by using virulence factors to generate a complement-dependent find-me signal that initiates uptake by a new phagocyte through efferocytosis. During macrophage death, Salmonella uses a type III secretion system to perforate the membrane of the pathogen-containing vacuole (PCV), thereby triggering complement deposition on bacteria entrapped in pore-induced intracellular traps (PITs). In turn, complement activation signals neutrophil efferocytosis, a process that shelters intracellular bacteria from the respiratory burst. Similarly, Brucella employs its type IV secretion system to perforate the PCV membrane, which induces complement deposition on bacteria entrapped in PITs. Collectively, this work identifies virulence factor-induced perforation of the PCV as a strategy of intracellular pathogens to generate a find-me signal for efferocytosis.

Vitamin A supplementation boosts control of antibiotic-resistant Salmonella infection in malnourished mice.

Disseminated disease from non-typhoidal Salmonella enterica strains results in >20% mortality globally. Barriers to effective treatment include emerging multidrug resistance, antibiotic treatment failure, and risk factors such as malnutrition and related micronutrient deficiencies. Individuals in sub-Saharan Africa are disproportionately affected by non-typhoidal S. enterica bloodstream infections. To inform a clinical trial in people, we investigated vitamin A as a treatment in the context of antibiotic treatment failure in a mouse model of vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A-deficient (VAD) mice exhibited higher systemic bacterial levels with a multidrug-resistant clinical isolate in comparison to mice on a control diet. Sex-specific differences in vitamin A deficiency and disseminated infection with S. enterica serotype Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) were observed. VAD male mice had decreased weight gain compared to control male mice. Further, infected VAD male mice had significant weight loss and decreased survival during the course of infection. These differences were not apparent in female mice. In a model of disseminated S. Typhimurium infection and antibiotic treatment failure, we assessed the potential of two consecutive doses of vitamin A in alleviating infection in male and female mice on a VAD or control diet. We found that subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment synergized with vitamin A treatment in infected VAD male mice, significantly decreasing systemic bacterial levels, mitigating weight loss and improving survival. These results suggest that assessing vitamin A as a therapy during bacteremia in malnourished patients may lead to improved health outcomes in a subset of patients, especially in the context of antibiotic treatment failure.

Salmonella Mitigates Oxidative Stress and Thrives in the Inflamed Gut by Evading Calprotectin-Mediated Manganese Sequestration.

Neutrophils hinder bacterial growth by a variety of antimicrobial mechanisms, including the production of reactive oxygen species and the secretion of proteins that sequester nutrients essential to microbes. A major player in this process is calprotectin, a host protein that exerts antimicrobial activity by chelating zinc and manganese. Here we show that the intestinal pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium uses specialized metal transporters to evade calprotectin sequestration of manganese, allowing the bacteria to outcompete commensals and thrive in the inflamed gut. The pathogen's ability to acquire manganese in turn promotes function of SodA and KatN, enzymes that use the metal as a cofactor to detoxify reactive oxygen species. This manganese-dependent SodA activity allows the bacteria to evade neutrophil killing mediated by calprotectin and reactive oxygen species. Thus, manganese acquisition enables S. Typhimurium to overcome host antimicrobial defenses and support its competitive growth in the intestine.

Transition metal ions at the crossroads of mucosal immunity and microbial pathogenesis.

Transition metal ions are essential micronutrients for all living organisms. In mammals, these ions are often protein-bound and sequestered within cells, limiting their availability to microbes. Moreover, in response to infection, mammalian hosts further reduce the availability of metal nutrients by activating epithelial cells and recruiting neutrophils, both of which release metal-binding proteins with antimicrobial function. Microorganisms, in turn, have evolved sophisticated systems to overcome these limitations and acquire the metal ions essential for their growth. Here we review some of the mechanisms employed by the host and by pathogenic microorganisms to compete for transition metal ions, with a discussion of how evading "nutritional immunity" benefits pathogens. Furthermore, we provide new insights on the mechanisms of host-microbe competition for metal ions in the mucosa, particularly in the inflamed gut.

Use of principal components analysis and protein microarray to explore the association of HIV-1-specific IgG responses with disease progression.

The role of HIV-1-specific antibody responses in HIV disease progression is complex and would benefit from analysis techniques that examine clusterings of responses. Protein microarray platforms facilitate the simultaneous evaluation of numerous protein-specific antibody responses, though excessive data are cumbersome in analyses. Principal components analysis (PCA) reduces data dimensionality by generating fewer composite variables that maximally account for variance in a dataset. To identify clusters of antibody responses involved in disease control, we investigated the association of HIV-1-specific antibody responses by protein microarray, and assessed their association with disease progression using PCA in a nested cohort design. Associations observed among collections of antibody responses paralleled protein-specific responses. At baseline, greater antibody responses to the transmembrane glycoprotein (TM) and reverse transcriptase (RT) were associated with higher viral loads, while responses to the surface glycoprotein (SU), capsid (CA), matrix (MA), and integrase (IN) proteins were associated with lower viral loads. Over 12 months greater antibody responses were associated with smaller decreases in CD4 count (CA, MA, IN), and reduced likelihood of disease progression (CA, IN). PCA and protein microarray analyses highlighted a collection of HIV-specific antibody responses that together were associated with reduced disease progression, and may not have been identified by examining individual antibody responses. This technique may be useful to explore multifaceted host-disease interactions, such as HIV coinfections.