Modulation of CrbS-Dependent Activation of the Acetate Switch in Vibrio cholerae.

Vibrio cholerae controls the pathogenicity of interactions with arthropod hosts via the activity of the CrbS/R two-component system. This signaling pathway regulates the consumption of acetate, which in turn alters the relative virulence of interactions with arthropods, including Drosophila melanogaster CrbS is a histidine kinase that links a transporter-like domain to its signaling apparatus via putative STAC and PAS domains. CrbS and its cognate response regulator are required for the expression of acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) synthetase (product of acs), which converts acetate to acetyl-CoA. We demonstrate that the STAC domain of CrbS is required for signaling in culture; without it, acs transcription is reduced in LB medium, and V. cholerae cannot grow on acetate minimal media. However, the strain remains virulent toward Drosophila and expresses acs similarly to the wild type during infection. This suggests that there is a unique signal or environmental variable that modulates CrbS in the gastrointestinal tract of Drosophila Second, we present evidence in support of CrbR, the response regulator that interacts with CrbS, binding directly to the acs promoter, and we identify a region of the promoter that CrbR may target. We further demonstrate that nutrient signals, together with the cAMP receptor protein (CRP)-cAMP system, control acs transcription, but regulation may occur indirectly, as CRP-cAMP activates the expression of the crbS and crbR genes. Finally, we define the role of the Pta-AckA system in V. cholerae and identify redundancy built into acetate excretion pathways in this pathogen.IMPORTANCE CrbS is a member of a unique family of sensor histidine kinases, as its structure suggests that it may link signaling to the transport of a molecule. However, mechanisms through which CrbS senses and communicates information about the outside world are unknown. In the Vibrionaceae, orthologs of CrbS regulate acetate metabolism, which can, in turn, affect interactions with host organisms. Here, we situate CrbS within a larger regulatory framework, demonstrating that crbS is regulated by nutrient-sensing systems. Furthermore, CrbS domains may play various roles in signaling during infection and growth in culture, suggesting a unique mechanism of host recognition. Finally, we define the roles of additional pathways in acetate flux, as a foundation for further studies of this metabolic nexus point.

The bidirectional relationship between metabolism and cell cycle control.

The relationship between metabolism and cell cycle progression is complex and bidirectional. Cells must rewire metabolism to meet changing biosynthetic demands across cell cycle phases. In turn, metabolism can influence cell cycle progression through direct regulation of cell cycle proteins, through nutrient-sensing signaling pathways, and through its impact on cell growth, which is linked to cell division. Furthermore, metabolism is a key player in mediating quiescence-proliferation transitions in physiologically important cell types, such as stem cells. How metabolism impacts cell cycle progression, exit, and re-entry, as well as how these processes impact metabolism, is not fully understood. Recent advances uncovering mechanistic links between cell cycle regulators and metabolic processes demonstrate a complex relationship between metabolism and cell cycle control, with many questions remaining.

Nucleotide imbalance decouples cell growth from cell proliferation.

Nucleotide metabolism supports RNA synthesis and DNA replication to enable cell growth and division. Nucleotide depletion can inhibit cell growth and proliferation, but how cells sense and respond to changes in the relative levels of individual nucleotides is unclear. Moreover, the nucleotide requirement for biomass production changes over the course of the cell cycle, and how cells coordinate differential nucleotide demands with cell cycle progression is not well understood. Here we find that excess levels of individual nucleotides can inhibit proliferation by disrupting the relative levels of nucleotide bases needed for DNA replication and impeding DNA replication. The resulting purine and pyrimidine imbalances are not sensed by canonical growth regulatory pathways like mTORC1, Akt and AMPK signalling cascades, causing excessive cell growth despite inhibited proliferation. Instead, cells rely on replication stress signalling to survive during, and recover from, nucleotide imbalance during S phase. We find that ATR-dependent replication stress signalling is activated during unperturbed S phases and promotes nucleotide availability to support DNA replication. Together, these data reveal that imbalanced nucleotide levels are not detected until S phase, rendering cells reliant on replication stress signalling to cope with this metabolic problem and disrupting the coordination of cell growth and division.

Targeting serine hydroxymethyltransferases 1 and 2 for T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia therapy.

Despite progress in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), T-cell ALL (T-ALL) has limited treatment options, particularly in the setting of relapsed/refractory disease. Using an unbiased genome-scale CRISPR-Cas9 screen we sought to identify pathway dependencies for T-ALL which could be harnessed for therapy development. Disruption of the one-carbon folate, purine and pyrimidine pathways scored as the top metabolic pathways required for T-ALL proliferation. We used a recently developed inhibitor of SHMT1 and SHMT2, RZ-2994, to characterize the effect of inhibiting these enzymes of the one-carbon folate pathway in T-ALL and found that T-ALL cell lines were differentially sensitive to RZ-2994, with the drug inducing a S/G2 cell cycle arrest. The effects of SHMT1/2 inhibition were rescued by formate supplementation. Loss of both SHMT1 and SHMT2 was necessary for impaired growth and cell cycle arrest, with suppression of both SHMT1 and SHMT2 inhibiting leukemia progression in vivo. RZ-2994 also decreased leukemia burden in vivo and remained effective in the setting of methotrexate resistance in vitro. This study highlights the significance of the one-carbon folate pathway in T-ALL and supports further development of SHMT inhibitors for treatment of T-ALL and other cancers.

Cellular redox state constrains serine synthesis and nucleotide production to impact cell proliferation.

The de novo serine synthesis pathway is upregulated in many cancers. However, even cancer cells with increased serine synthesis take up large amounts of serine from the environment1 and we confirm that exogenous serine is needed for maximal proliferation of these cells. Here we show that even when enzymes in the serine synthesis pathway are genetically upregulated, the demand for oxidized NAD+ constrains serine synthesis, rendering serine-deprived cells sensitive to conditions that decrease the cellular NAD+/NADH ratio. Further, purine depletion is a major consequence of reduced intracellular serine availability, particularly when NAD+ regeneration is impaired. Thus, cells rely on exogenous serine consumption to maintain purine biosynthesis. In support of this explanation, providing exogenous purine nucleobases, or increasing NAD+ availability to facilitate de novo serine and purine synthesis, both rescue maximal proliferation even in the absence of extracellular serine. Together, these data indicate that NAD+ is an endogenous limitation for cancer cells to synthesize the serine needed for purine production to support rapid proliferation.

Aspartate is an endogenous metabolic limitation for tumour growth.

Defining the metabolic limitations of tumour growth will help to develop cancer therapies1. Cancer cells proliferate slower in tumours than in standard culture conditions, indicating that a metabolic limitation may restrict cell proliferation in vivo. Aspartate synthesis can limit cancer cell proliferation when respiration is impaired2-4; however, whether acquiring aspartate is endogenously limiting for tumour growth is unknown. We confirm that aspartate has poor cell permeability, which prevents environmental acquisition, whereas the related amino acid asparagine is available to cells in tumours, but cancer cells lack asparaginase activity to convert asparagine to aspartate. Heterologous expression of guinea pig asparaginase 1 (gpASNase1), an enzyme that produces aspartate from asparagine5, confers the ability to use asparagine to supply intracellular aspartate to cancer cells in vivo. Tumours expressing gpASNase1 grow at a faster rate, indicating that aspartate acquisition is an endogenous metabolic limitation for the growth of some tumours. Tumours expressing gpASNase1 are also refractory to the growth suppressive effects of metformin, suggesting that metformin inhibits tumour growth by depleting aspartate. These findings suggest that therapeutic aspartate suppression could be effective to treat cancer.

Serine Synthesis via PHGDH Is Essential for Heme Production in Endothelial Cells.

The role of phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PHGDH), a key enzyme of the serine synthesis pathway (SSP), in endothelial cells (ECs) remains poorly characterized. We report that mouse neonates with EC-specific PHGDH deficiency suffer lethal vascular defects within days of gene inactivation, due to reduced EC proliferation and survival. In addition to nucleotide synthesis impairment, PHGDH knockdown (PHGDHKD) caused oxidative stress, due not only to decreased glutathione and NADPH synthesis but also to mitochondrial dysfunction. Electron transport chain (ETC) enzyme activities were compromised upon PHGDHKD because of insufficient heme production due to cellular serine depletion, not observed in other cell types. As a result of heme depletion, elevated reactive oxygen species levels caused EC demise. Supplementation of hemin in PHGDHKD ECs restored ETC function and rescued the apoptosis and angiogenesis defects. These data argue that ECs die upon PHGDH inhibition, even without external serine deprivation, illustrating an unusual importance of serine synthesis for ECs.