Temporal trend, spatial analysis and spatiotemporal clusters of infant mortality associated with congenital toxoplasmosis in Brazil: Time series from 2000 to 2020.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the spatial, temporal and spatial-temporal patterns of infant mortality associated with congenital toxoplasmosis in Brazil between the years 2000 and 2020. METHODS: Ecological study of time series, with spatial analysis and spatiotemporal scan of infant mortality associated with congenital toxoplasmosis from the records of deaths of the Mortality Information System of the Brazilian Ministry of Health. The rates were smoothed by the Local Empirical Bayesian model. The Global Moran Index, Global Geary's Contiguity and Getis-Ord General statistics were calculated for spatial autocorrelation assessment. The trends were evaluated by the Joinpoint method. RESULTS: We identified 1183 infant deaths associated with congenital toxoplasmosis in Brazil between 2000 and 2020. The predominant characteristics were male sex (52.1%), post-neonatal age group (51.9%), white race/colour (45.7%), and Southeast region of residence (40.0%). The infant mortality rate associated with congenital toxoplasmosis showed an increasing trend in the country in the years analysed. The spatial analysis showed heterogeneous distribution of mortality in the Brazilian territory and found no evidence of spatial autocorrelation; but spatial-temporal analysis identified three risk clusters involving 703 municipalities. CONCLUSION: Infant mortality associated with congenital toxoplasmosis is a persistent public health problem in Brazil. The risk factors male sex, indigenous race/colour, early neonatal age, North and Northeast regions and risk clusters mapped in this study should be observed for future analysis and planning of health care policies in the control of infant deaths associated with congenital toxoplasmosis. Health surveillance strategies and public health policies need to be strengthened.

Magnitude of visceral leishmaniasis and HIV coinfection and association with social determinants of health in the Northeast region of Brazil: a retrospective, spatiotemporal model (2010-2018).

The Northeast region of Brazil (NRB) includes the states with the highest prevalence of visceral leishmaniasis (VL), as well as those with significant increases in HIV cases. This study aims to analyze the spatiotemporal patterns of VL-HIV coinfection and its association with the social determinants of health (SDH) in the NRB. Time trend analysis and Bayesian spatial statistical inferences, Moran's autocorrelation, and retrospective space-time scanning were performed. Spatial regression modelling was used to build an explanatory model for the occurrence of VL-HIV coinfection within NRB. A total of 1550 cases of VL-HIV coinfection were confirmed. We observed a higher prevalence among males (1232; 83%), individuals aged from 20 to 59 years (850; 54.8%), non-white skin color (1,422; 91.7%), and with low education (550; 35.48%). NRB showed an increasing and significant trend in the detection rate of coinfection (APC, 5.3; 95% CI, 1.4 to 9.4). The states of Maranhão and Piauí comprised the high-risk cluster. The SDH that most correlated with the occurrence of coinfection were poor housing, low income, and low education. VL-HIV is dispersed in the NRB but chiefly affects states with greater social vulnerability. Taken together, these findings reinforce the necessity to implement surveillance strategies that will contribute to the reduction of cases in these populations.

High-risk transmission clusters of leprosy in an endemic area in the Northeastern Brazil: A retrospective spatiotemporal modelling (2001-2019).

OBJECTIVES: To analyse and map the leprosy risk areas in the state of Alagoas, an endemic region in the Northeastern Brazil, between 2001 and 2019. METHODS: Ecological and time series study, using spatial analysis techniques. First, we analyse the epidemiological aspects of leprosy cases, using the data available in the Notifiable Diseases Information System; then, we used the segmented log-linear regression model to assess time trends. Spatial distribution was analysed by the Local Empirical Bayesian Estimator and by calculating the Global and Local Moran Index. Finally, spatiotemporal clusters were identified through scanning statistics, using the Kulldorf method of retrospective analysis. RESULTS: We observed that Alagoas showed an average new case detection rate of 14.43/100,000 inhabitants between 2001 and 2019, being classified as highly endemic. The area of highest risk was the 9th health region (state hinterland), with increasing time trend (Annual Percentage Change/APC = 7.2; p-value < 0.05). Several clusters of high risk of leprosy transmission were verified in Alagoas, including the state capital and hinterland municipalities. CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that active M. leprae transmission persists in Alagoas; that diagnosis is delayed and that there are high-risk areas, especially in inland municipalities.

Spatial patterns and temporal tendency of mortality related to Chagas disease in an endemic area of northeastern Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse spatial patterns and the temporal tendency of mortality related to Chagas disease, in order to identify priority control areas in the state of Sergipe, Northeast Brazil. METHODS: We conducted an ecological and time-series study with spatial analysis techniques on deaths from Chagas disease in the state of Sergipe (1996-2016). We used data from the Mortality Information System (SIM). The temporal analysis was performed using a statistical technique capable of describing changes in the trend pattern for the period. Thematic maps were elaborated from point and polygonal analyses. RESULTS: There were 247 deaths related to Chagas disease, with a mean of 11.7 deaths/year, most of them male (64%), and aged 50-59 years (21%) and 60-69 years (26%). Two segments with increasing, non-constant and significant trends were identified: 1996-2005 (APC = 21.6%; P = 0.01) and 2005-2016 (APC = 4.4%; P = 0.01), with APPC = 11.8% (P = 0.01). A positive and significant spatial autocorrelation with areas of higher risk of death was found in the southern region of the state. CONCLUSIONS: The trend of mortality related to Chagas disease in the state of Sergipe was increasing during the period analysed, with a heterogeneous distribution of cases. A main risk area was identified in the southern region of the state.

OBJECTIF: Analyser les profils spatiaux et la tendance temporelle de la mortalité liée à la maladie de Chagas, afin d'identifier les domaines de priorité de lutte dans l'Etat de Sergipe, dans le nord-est du Brésil. MÉTHODES: Nous avons mené une étude écologique et de séries chronologiques avec des techniques d'analyse spatiale sur les décès dus à la maladie de Chagas dans l'état de Sergipe (1996-2016). Nous avons utilisé les données du système d'information sur la mortalité (SIM). L'analyse temporelle a été réalisée à l'aide d'une technique statistique capable de décrire les changements dans le profil de tendance pour la période. Des cartes thématiques ont été élaborées à partir d'analyses ponctuelles et polygonales. RÉSULTATS: Il y a eu 247 décès liés à la maladie de Chagas, avec une moyenne de 11,7 décès/an, pour la plupart de sexe masculin (64%), et âgés de 50 à 59 ans (21%) et de 60 à 69 ans (26%). Deux segments avec des tendances à la hausse, non constantes et significatives ont été identifiés: 1996-2005 (APC = 21,6%; p = 0,01) et 2005-2016 (APC = 4,4%; p = 0,01), avec APPC = 11,8% (p = 0,01). Une autocorrélation spatiale positive et significative avec des zones à haut risque de décès a été trouvée dans la région sud de l'Etat. CONCLUSIONS: La tendance de la mortalité liée à la maladie de Chagas dans l'état de Sergipe a augmenté au cours de la période analysée , avec une répartition hétérogène des cas. Une principale zone à risque a été identifiée dans la région sud de l'Etat.

Spatial and temporal analysis of tuberculosis in an area of social inequality in Northeast Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is a disease known worldwide for its vulnerability factors, magnitude and mortality. The objective of the study was to analyze the spatial and temporal dynamics of TB in the area of social inequality in northeast Brazil between the years 2001 and 2016. METHODS: An ecological time series study with the use of spatial analysis techniques was carried out from 2001 to 2016. The units of analysis were the 75 municipalities in the state of Sergipe. Data from the Notification of Injury Information System were used. For the construction of the maps, the cartographic base of the state of Sergipe, obtained at the Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, was used. Georeferenced data were analysed using TerraView 4.2.2 software (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais) and QGis 2.18.2 (Open Source Geospatial Foundation). Spatial analyses included the empirical Bayesian model and the global and local Moran indices. The time trend analyses were performed by the software Joinpoint Regression, Version 4.5.0.1, with the variables of sex, age, cure and abandonment. RESULTS: There was an increasing trend of tuberculosis cases in patients under 20 years old and 20-39 years old, especially in males. Cured cases showed a decreasing trend, and cases of treatment withdrawal were stationary. A spatial dependence was observed in almost all analysed territories but with different concentrations. Significant spatial correlations with the formation of clusters in the southeast and northeast of the state were observed. The probability of illness among municipalities was determined not to occur in a random way. CONCLUSION: The identification of risk areas and priority groups can help health planning by refining the focus of attention to tuberculosis control. Understanding the epidemiological, spatial and temporal dynamics of tuberculosis can allow for improved targeting of strategies for disease prevention and control.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic Surveillance of Visceral Leishmaniasis in Brazil: An Ecological Study.

The aim of the study was to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the notification of new VL cases in Brazil in 2020. It is an ecological and time-series study (2015-2020) with spatial analysis techniques, whose units of analysis were the 5570 Brazilian municipalities. The study population consisted of all new cases of VL recorded between 2015 and 2020. The P-score was calculated to estimate the percentage variation in new VL cases. Global and local univariate Moran's Indices and retrospective space-time scan statistics were used in spatial and space-time analyses, respectively. It was expected that there would be 3627 new cases of VL in Brazil in 2020, but 1932 cases were reported (-46.73%). All Brazilian regions presented a negative percentage variation in the registration of new VL cases, with the Southeast (-54.70%), North (-49.97%), and Northeast (-44.22%) standing out. There was spatial dependence of the disease nationwide in both periods, before and during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. There was a significant reduction in the incidence of new VL cases in Brazil during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. These findings reinforce the need for better preparedness of the health system, especially in situations of new epidemics.

Adherence to Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) among Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM) in Portuguese-Speaking Countries.

Strengthening strategies to improve adherence to the use of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) in key populations constitutes a global health priority to be achieved across countries, especially in countries that share a high flow of people such as Brazil and Portugal. This study aimed to analyze the factors associated with adherence to PrEP among MSM from two Portuguese-speaking countries, highlighting the opportunities and preventive strategies for the global health scenario. This was a cross-sectional analytical online survey conducted from January 2020 to May 2021 with MSM in Brazil and Portugal. For analysis of the data, the Poisson regression model was used to estimate the prevalence ratio (PR) for developing a model to evaluate the associated factors in both countries in a comparative and isolated way. Adherence to PrEP use corresponded to 19.5% (n = 1682) of the overall sample: 18.3% (n = 970) for Brazil and 21.5% (n = 712) for Portugal. Having more than two sex partners in the last 30 days (aPR: 30.87) and routinely undergoing HIV tests (aPR: 26.21) increased the use of this medication. Being an immigrant (PR: 1.36) and knowing the partner's serological status (PR: 1.28) increased adherence to PrEP in Portugal, whereas, in Brazil, it was being an immigrant (PR: 0.83) and not knowing the serological status (PR: 2.24) that promoted the use of this medication. Our findings reinforce the need to invest in programs and strategies to improve access and adherence to PrEP, especially in key populations.

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the diagnosis of leprosy in Brazil: An ecological and population-based study.

BACKGROUND: The pandemic caused by COVID-19 has seriously affected global health, resulting in the suspension of many regular health services, making the diagnosis of other infections difficult. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the diagnosis of leprosy in Brazil during the year 2020. METHODS: We evaluated the monthly incidence of leprosy and calculated the percentage change to verify whether there was an increase or decrease in the number of leprosy cases in 2020, considering the monthly average of cases over the previous 5 years. We used interrupted time series analysis to assess the trend in the diagnosis of leprosy before and after the start of COVID-19 in Brazil and prepared spatial distribution maps, considering the percentage variation in each state. FINDINGS: We verified a reduction of 41.4% of leprosy cases in Brazil in 2020. Likewise, there was a reduction of leprosy notifications in children under 15 years-old (-56.82%). Conversely, the diagnosis of multibacillary leprosy increased (8.1%). There was a decreasing trend in the leprosy incidence in the general population between 2015 and 2020 in Brazil. Spatial distribution maps depicted a reduction of up to 100% in new cases of leprosy in some states. INTERPRETATION: Along with COVID-19 spread there was a reduction in leprosy diagnosis in the general population and children under 15 years-old, and also an increase in multibacillary cases diagnosed, signalling a serious impact of the pandemic on leprosy control strategies in Brazil. FUNDING: This research received no specific grants.

Spatial and spatiotemporal dynamics of visceral leishmaniasis in an endemic North-eastern region of Brazil.

Visceral Leishmaniasis (VL) is a neglected disease with increasing incidence in Brazil, particularly in the North-eastern. The aim of this study was to analyze the spatial and spatiotemporal dynamics of VL in an endemic region of North-eastern Brazil, between 2009 and 2017. Using spatial analysis techniques, an ecological and time series study was made regarding VL cases in Sergipe filed as notifiable disease events. With data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, IBGE), a digital population and cartographic baseline was established. Segmented linear regression was used to examine the temporal trends. The statistical analysis methods of Global and Local Moran' I, local Bayesian empirical methodology and spatial-temporal scanning were used to produce thematic maps. High instances were found among adults, males, urban residents, non-Whites and persons with low levels of education. A decrease in the recovery rate and an increase in the proportion of urban cases and lethality was found. A heterogeneous VL distribution with spatiotemporal agglomeration on the seaside of the state was seen in Sergipe. To better manage the disease, new research is encouraged together with development of public health strategies. Further, improving health care networks, especially primary care, is suggested as this approach has a key role in health promotion, prevention and monitoring of the most prevalent diseases.

Basic and associated causes of schistosomiasis-related mortality in Brazil: A population-based study and a 20-year time series of a disease still neglected.

BACKGROUND: Schistosomiasis is a persistent public health problem in Brazil. Regardless advances in diagnosis and mass treatment, schistosomiasis has a severe impact on morbimortality in the country and remains a neglected tropical disease. Herein, we assessed the basic and associated causes of schistosomiasis-related deaths and the temporal and spatial patterns of mortality from the disease in Brazil between 1999 and 2018. METHODS: We conducted an ecological and time series study. The segmented log-linear regression model was applied to assess time trends, considering all deaths recorded in the category B65/ICD-10. Additionally, we elaborated maps of mortality rates from schistosomiasis in Brazil. RESULTS: A total of 4168 schistosomiasis-related deaths were recorded in Brazil in this period, as an associated cause. Time trend analysis revealed an increase in the average age of deaths from schistosomiasis (annual percentage change (APC) = 0.84), and stable trend in Brazil (APC = 0.31). Concerning schistosomiasis-related deaths, we observed disorders related to the digestive system, liver diseases, septicemias, and chronic diseases. Surprisingly, there were deaths caused by non-endemic Schistosoma species in Brazil. Also, municipalities from non-endemic areas in Brazil presented schistosomiasis-related deaths. CONCLUSION: Altogether, our analyses demonstrated that schistosomiasis remains a significant cause of death in Brazil, and it is increasing in some areas, especially in the Northeast region. Additionally, women and the elderly showed a stable time trend of deaths. Thereby, it urgently requires improvements in the control programs strategies, in the sense of an effective reduction in cases and deaths from the disease in Brazil.

Determining the association between dengue and social inequality factors in north-eastern Brazil: A spatial modelling.

Dengue is a global public health problem. The Dengue Virus (DENV) serotypes are transmitted by an Aedes aegypti mosquito. Vector control is among the primary methods to prevent the disease, especially in tropical countries. This study aimed to analyze the spatial distribution of dengue and its relationship with social inequalities using spatial modelling. An ecological study with temporal and spatial analysis was conducted in the state of Sergipe, Northeast Brazil, over a period of 18 years. Spatial modelling was used to determine the influence of space on dengue incidence and social inequalities. The epidemic rates in 2008, 2012, and 2015 were identified. Spatial modelling explained 40% of the influence of social inequalities on dengue incidence in the state. The main social inequalities related to the occurrence of dengue were the percentage of people living in extreme poverty and inadequate sanitation. The epidemic situation even increased the risk of dengue in the population of the state of Sergipe. These results demonstrate the potential of spatial modelling in determining the factors associated with dengue epidemics and are useful in planning the intersectoral public health policies.

Tendência temporal e características epidemiológicas da tuberculose em um município do nordeste do Brasil / Tendencia en el tiempo y características epidemiológicas de la tuberculosis en un municipio del noreste de Brasil / Trend temporary and epidemiological characteristics of tuberculosis in a municipality of northeast Brazil

RESUMO Introdução: A tuberculose é uma doença infecciosa considerada um grave problema de saúde pública no Brasil, com elevadas prevalências nas regiões Norte, Nordeste e Centro-oeste. Objetivo: Analisar a tendência temporal e descrever as características clínico-epidemiológicas dos casos de tuberculose no município de Lagarto/SE, Nordeste do Brasil. Métodos: Foi realizado um estudo descritivo, retrospectivo e de série temporal, por meio de dados secundários dos casos de tuberculose notificados entre o período de 2002 e 2012. As fontes de dados utilizadas foram as fichas de investigação do Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação (SINAN). Analisaram-se as tendências temporais por sexo e faixa etária através de regressão linear, considerando-se p< 0,05. Resultados: Foram notificados 315 casos de tuberculose, sendo a taxa média de incidênciade 30,15 casos para cada 100 mil habitantes. Houve um decréscimo (31 porcento) da taxa de incidência, variando de 31,51(2002) para 21,74(2012). Observou-se predomínio do sexo masculino (65,4 porcento), adultos jovens (61 porcento), casos novos (84,1 porcento), forma pulmonar (84,4 porcento), bacilíferos (66,98 porcento) e ocorrência de 05 casos (1,59 porcento) de coinfecção TB/HIV. No tocante a tendência, foi observada uma redução significativa para o sexo feminino (p=0,015) e em idosos (p=0,04). Conclusões: Apesar das variações anuais nas taxas, foi perceptível uma tendência decrescente da incidência de casos de tuberculose no município de Lagarto/SE. Torna-se importante manter e intensificar as intervenções de controle, com prioridades estratégicas focadas na busca ativa de sintomáticos respiratórios, sobretudo em localidades de difícil acesso aos serviços de saúde(AU)

RESUMEN Introducción: La tuberculosis es una enfermedad infecciosa considerada un problema grave de salud pública en Brasil, con una alta prevalencia en el norte, noreste y medio oeste. Objetivo: Analizar las tendencias en el tiempo y describir las características clínicas y epidemiológicas de los casos de tuberculosis en la ciudad de Lagarto/SE, noreste de Brasil. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio descriptivo, retrospectivo y series de tiempo, el uso de datos secundarios de los casos de tuberculosis notificados entre el período 2002 y 2012. Las fuentes de datos utilizadas fueron los registros Sistema de Información de Enfermedades de Declaración Obligatoria (SINAN). Las tendencias temporales se analizaron por sexo y grupo de edad por regresión lineal, considerando p <0,05. Resultados: Se reportaron 315 casos de tuberculosis, y la tasa media de incidencia de 30,15 casos por cada 100 mil habitantes. Hubo una disminución (31 por ciento) se la tasa de incidencia que oscila entre 31,51 (2002) a 21,74 (2012). Hubo un predominio del sexo masculino (65,4 por ciento), adultos jóvenes (61 por ciento), nuevos casos (84,1 por ciento), forma pulmonar (84,4 por ciento), la tuberculosis activa (66,98 por ciento) y la ocurrencia de 05 casos (1,59 por ciento) con coinfección con el TB/HIV. En cuanto a la tendencia se observada reducción significativa para las mujeres (p = 0,015) y mayores (p = 0,04). Conclusiones: A pesar de las variaciones anuales de las tasas, fue notable una tendencia a la baja en la incidencia de casos de tuberculosis en la ciudad de Lagarto / SE. Es importante mantener e intensificar las intervenciones de control con las prioridades estratégicas centradas en la búsqueda activa de sintomáticos respiratorios, especialmente en lugares de difícil acceso a los lugares de servicios de salud(AU)

ABSTRACT Introduction: Tuberculosis is an infectious disease considered a serious public health problem in Brazil, with high prevalence in the North, Northeast and Midwest. Objective: To analyze time trends and describe the clinical and epidemiological features of tuberculosis cases in the city of Lagarto/SE, Northeast Brazil. Methods: We conducted a descriptive, retrospective and time series study, using secondary data of tuberculosis cases notified entre the period 2002 and 2012. The data sources used were the investigation chips of Information System of Notification of Diseases (SINAN). Temporal trends were analyzed by sex and age group by linear regression, considering p <0.05. Results: 315 cases of tuberculosis were reported, and the average incidence rate of 30.15 cases per 100 thousand inhabitants. There was a decrease (31 percent) the incidence rate ranging from 31.51 (2002) to 21.74 (2012). There was a predominance of males (65.4 percent), young adults (61 percent) new cases (84.1 percent), pulmonary form (84.4 percent), active tuberculosis (66.98 percent) and the occurrence of 05 cases (1.59 percent) coinfection with TB/HIV. Regarding the trend was observed a significant reduction for females (p = 0.015) and older (p = 0.04). Conclusions: Despite annual variations in rates, a downward trend in the incidence of tuberculosis cases in the city of Lagarto/SE was noticeable. It is important to maintain and intensify control interventions with strategic priorities focused on active search for respiratory symptoms, especially in difficult to access to health services locations(AU)

Conhecimentos, atitudes e prática de homens sobre infecções sexualmente transmissíveis / Men's knowledge, attitudes and practice regarding sexually transmitted diseases / Conocimientos, actitudes y práctica de hombres acerca de infecciones sexualmente transmisibles

Objetivos: analisar conhecimentos, atitudes e práticas de homens acerca das infecções sexualmente transmissíveis e o uso do preservativo. Método: estudo descritivo, transversal com abordagem quantitativa com caminhoneiros do município de Itabaiana, Sergipe. A coleta de dados ocorreu entre janeiro e março de 2017 com 75 caminhoneiros. Após a coleta de dados, as entrevistas foram transcritas, analisadas e classificadas pelo conhecimento, atitude e prática dos caminhoneiros. Resultados: dos caminhoneiros, 74 (98,6%) possuíam conhecimento adequado acerca das infecções, porém foi possível identificar que as atitudes e as práticas não se apresentavam de maneira adequada, principalmente no que diz respeito ao comportamento sexual e os antecedentes de infecções sexualmente transmissíveis. Conclusão: intervenções efetivas, subsidiadas por planejamento estratégico situacional, devem ser estimuladas para a população estudada em diferentes regiões brasileiras. Assim, reduzem cadeias de transmissão das doenças e promovem saúde (AU).

Objectives: to analyze men's knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding sexually transmitted infections and condom use. Method: a descriptive, transversal study with a quantitative approach, with truck drivers in the city of Itabaiana, in the Brazilian State of Sergipe. Data collection took place between January and March 2017, with 75 truck drivers. After data collection, the interviews were transcribed, analyzed and classified in terms of the truck drivers' knowledge, attitudes and practice. Results: of the truck drivers, 74 (98.6%) possessed adequate knowledge regarding the infections; however, it was possible to identify that their attitudes and practices were not adequate ­ mainly in regard to sexual behavior and previous infection with sexually transmitted infections. Conclusion: effective interventions, supported by situational strategic planning, must be encouraged for the population studied in different regions of Brazil. This would reduce chains of transmission of the diseases and promote health (AU).

Objetivos: analizar conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas de hombres acerca de las infecciones sexualmente transmisibles y el uso del preservativo. Método: estudio descriptivo, transversal de abordaje cuantitativo con camioneros del municipio de Itabaiana, Sergipe. La obtención de datos ocurrió entre enero y marzo de 2017 con 75 camioneros. Después de la obtención de datos, se transcribieron las entrevistas, y fueron analizadas y clasificadas por el conocimiento, actitud y práctica de los camioneros. Resultados: de los camioneros, 74 (98,6%) presentaban conocimiento apropiado acerca de las infecciones, sin embargo fue posible identificar que las actitudes y las prácticas no eran adecuadas, principalmente con relación al comportamiento sexual y a los antecedentes de infecciones sexualmente transmisibles. Conclusión: intervenciones efectivas, subsidiadas por planeamiento estratégico situacional deben ser estimuladas para la población estudiada en diferentes regiones brasileñas. Así, disminuyen las cadenas de transmisión de enfermedades y se promueve salud (AU).