The effects of hospital and dialysis unit characteristics on hospitalizations for access-related complications among children on maintenance dialysis: a European, multicenter, observational, cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies investigating hospitalizations in dialysis patients have focused primarily on patient-centered factors. We analyzed the impact of hospital and dialysis unit characteristics on pediatric dialysis patients' hospitalizations for access-related complications (ARCs). METHODS: This cross-sectional study involved 102 hemodialysis (HD) and 163 peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients. Data between July 2017 and July 2018 were analyzed. RESULTS: Children's hospitals (CHs) had more pediatric nephrologists and longer PD experience (years) than general hospitals (GHs) (p = 0.026 and p = 0.023, respectively). A total of 53% of automated PD (APD) and 6% of continuous ambulatory PD (CAPD) patients were in CHs (p < 0.001). Ninety-three percent of APD and 69% of CAPD patients were treated in pediatric-specific PD units (p = 0.001). CHs had a higher prevalence in providing hemodiafiltration (HDF) than GHs (83% vs. 30%). Ninety-seven percent of HDF vs. 66% for conventional HD (cHD) patients, and 94% of patients with arteriovenous fistula (AVF) vs. 70% of those with central venous catheters (CVC), were dialyzed in pediatric-specific HD units (p = 0.001 and p = 0.016, respectively). Eighty patients (51 PD and 29 HD) had 135 (84 PD, 51 HD) hospitalizations. CAPD was an independent risk factor for hospitalizations for infectious ARCs (I-ARCs) (p = 0.009), and a health center's PD experience negatively correlated with CAPD patient hospitalizations for I-ARCs (p = 0.041). cHD and dialyzing in combined HD units significantly increased hospitalization risk for non-infectious (NI-)ARCs (p = 0.044 and p = 0.017, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: CHs and pediatric-specific dialysis units have higher prevalence of APD and HDF use. Hospitalizations for I-ARCs in CAPD are lower in centers with longer PD experience, and pediatric HD units are associated with fewer hospitalizations due to NI-ARCs. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Sodium intake and urinary losses in children on dialysis: a European multicenter prospective study.

BACKGROUND: Sodium (Na) balance is unexplored in dialyzed children. We assessed a simplified sodium balance (sNaB) and its correlates in pediatric patients receiving maintenance dialysis. METHODS: Patients < 18 years old on hemodialysis (HD) or peritoneal dialysis (PD) in six European Pediatric Dialysis Working Group centers were recruited. sNaB was calculated from enteral Na, obtained by a 3-day diet diary, Na intake from medications, and 24-h urinary Na (uNa). Primary outcomes were systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure standard deviation scores (SBP and DBP SDS), obtained by 24-h ambulatory blood pressure monitoring or office BP according to age, and interdialytic weight gain (IDWG). RESULTS: Forty-one patients (31 HD), with a median age of 13.3 (IQR 5.2) years, were enrolled. Twelve patients (29.3%) received Na-containing drugs, accounting for 0.6 (0.7) mEq/kg/day. Median total Na intake was 1.5 (1.1) mEq/kg/day, corresponding to 60.6% of the maximum recommended daily intake for healthy children. Median uNa and sNaB were 0.6 (1.8) mEq/kg/day and 0.9 (1.7) mEq/kg/day, respectively. The strongest independent predictor of sNaB in the cohort was urine output. In patients receiving HD, sNaB correlated with IDWG, pre-HD DBP, and first-hour refill index, a volume index based on blood volume monitoring. sNaB was the strongest predictor of IDWG in multiple regression analysis (ß = 0.63; p = 0.005). Neither SBP SDS nor DBP SDS correlated with sNaB. CONCLUSIONS: Na intake is higher than uNa in children on dialysis, and medications may be an important source of Na. sNaB is best predicted by urine output in the population, and it is a significant independent predictor of IDWG in children on HD. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Nutritional and Anthropometric Indices in Children Receiving Haemodiafiltration vs Conventional Haemodialysis - The HDF, Heart and Height (3H) Study.

BACKGROUND: The "HDF-Heart-Height" study showed that haemodiafiltration (HDF) is associated with improved growth compared to conventional haemodialysis (HD). We report a post-hoc analysis of this study assessing the effect of extracorporeal dialysis therapies on nutritional indices. METHODS: 107 children were included in the baseline cross-sectional analysis, of whom 79 (43 HD, 36 HDF) completed the 12-month follow-up. Height (Ht), optimal 'dry' weight (Wt), and body mass index (BMI) standard deviations scores (SDS), waist-to-hip ratio, des-acyl ghrelin (DAG), adiponectin, leptin, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1)-SDS and insulin were measured. RESULTS: The levels of nutritional indices were comparable between HDF and HD patients at baseline and 12-month. On univariable analyses Wt-SDS positively correlated with leptin and IGF-1-SDS, and negatively with DAG, while Ht-SDS of the overall cohort positively correlated with IGF1-SDS and inversely with DAG and adiponectin. On multivariable analyses, higher 12-month Ht-SDS was inversely associated with baseline DAG (beta = -0.13 per 500 higher; 95%CI -0.22, -0.04; P = .004). Higher Wt-SDS at 12-month was positively associated with HDF modality (beta = 0.47 vs HD; 95%CI 0.12-0.83; P = .01) and inversely with baseline DAG (beta = -0.18 per 500 higher; 95%CI -0.32, -0.05; P = .006). Growth Hormone (GH) treated patients receiving HDF had higher annualized increase in Ht SDS compared to those on HD. CONCLUSIONS: In children on HD and HDF both Wt- and Ht-SDS independently correlated with lower baseline levels of the anorexygenic hormone DAG. HDF may attenuate the resistance to GH, but further studies are required to examine the mechanisms linking HDF to improved growth.

Resident foreign patients receive adequate dialysis but fewer preemptive transplantations: data from the Italian pediatric dialysis registry.

BACKGROUND: Sociocultural issues play a key role in children needing kidney replacement therapy (KRT). METHODS: Data of incident patients < 18 years treated with chronic dialysis or preemptive kidney transplantation (pTx) between 2007 and 2016 were retrospectively collected from the Italian Pediatric Dialysis Registry; KRT modality and outcome were compared between patients with at least one non-Italian parent ("resident foreign patients," RFPs) and those from native parents ("domestic patients," DPs) and between the quinquennium 2007-2011 (period 1) and 2012-2016 (period 2). RESULTS: We included 448 children (26.8% RFPs). The percentage of RFPs increased from 23 to 30.3% (p = 0.08) from periods 1 to 2. They were younger (6.7 vs. 9.4 years, p = 0.025) and less often treated with pTx (3.3 vs. 13.4%, p = 0.009) than DPs. The percentage of pTx increased from period 1 to 2 in RFPs only (8.4-18.6%, p = 0.006). Independent predictors of a lower probability of pTx were lower age, belonging to RFPs group, starting KRT in period 1 and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis or glomerulopathy as primary kidney disease. Peritoneal dialysis was the preferred dialysis modality in both groups. Age, primary kidney disease, and center size were independently associated with dialysis modality choice. Patient survival, waiting time to Tx, and dialysis modality survival were not different between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of patients receiving KRT born from immigrant families increased in recent years in Italy. They were younger and less often treated with pTx than domestic patients. In case of dialysis, the outcome was not different between the two groups. Graphical abstract.

Role of Arachidonic Acid and Its Metabolites in the Biological and Clinical Manifestations of Idiopathic Nephrotic Syndrome.

Studies concerning the role of arachidonic acid (AA) and its metabolites in kidney disease are scarce, and this applies in particular to idiopathic nephrotic syndrome (INS). INS is one of the most frequent glomerular diseases in childhood; it is characterized by T-lymphocyte dysfunction, alterations of pro- and anti-coagulant factor levels, and increased platelet count and aggregation, leading to thrombophilia. AA and its metabolites are involved in several biological processes. Herein, we describe the main fields where they may play a significant role, particularly as it pertains to their effects on the kidney and the mechanisms underlying INS. AA and its metabolites influence cell membrane fluidity and permeability, modulate platelet activity and coagulation, regulate lymphocyte activity and inflammation, preserve the permeability of the glomerular barrier, influence podocyte physiology, and play a role in renal fibrosis. We also provide suggestions regarding dietary measures that are able to prevent an imbalance between arachidonic acid and its parental compound linoleic acid, in order to counteract the inflammatory state which characterizes numerous kidney diseases. On this basis, studies of AA in kidney disease appear as an important field to explore, with possible relevant results at the biological, dietary, and pharmacological level, in the final perspective for AA to modulate INS clinical manifestations.

Influenza and pneumococcus vaccination rates in pediatric dialysis patients in Europe: recommendations vs reality A European Pediatric Dialysis Working Group and European Society for Pediatric Nephrology Dialysis Working Group study

Background/aim: Children on dialysis are under increased risk of influenza and invasive pneumococcal disease. Although vaccination against these microorganisms are recommended in dialysis patients and despite the fact that these vaccines can reduce disease burden and rates of hospitalization due to infection, vaccination rates are below expected and desired. We aimed to evaluate influenza and pneumococcal vaccination and infection rates in European pediatric dialysis centers. Materials and methods: In 16 centers from 11 countries, 357 pediatric dialysis patients were evaluated retrospectively during 1 year of observation period between 01.01.2014 and 01.01.2015. Results: In all centers, vaccination policy included immunization of dialysis patients with inactive influenza vaccine and pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV). Fifty percent of the centers recommended pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine following routine PCV series. A significantly higher pneumococcal vaccination rate (43.9%) was seen in peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients compared to those on hemodialysis (HD) (32.9%) (p = 0.035), while the rates for influenza were similar (42.4% and 46.1% respectively, p = 0.496). Among all dialysis patients, 2.2% (n = 8) developed pneumonia and 6.4% (n = 23) was infected by Influenza. Pneumococcic pneumonia rate was 5% for 140 patients who received antipneumococcal vaccine, while only one pneumonia episode was recorded out of 217 unvaccinated patients (p = 0.007). The influenza virus infection rates were similar for patients vaccinated and nonvaccinated (7 % and 6 %, respectively). Conclusions: Although influenza and pneumococcal vaccines are highly recommended in pediatric dialysis patients, vaccination rates were lower than expected. Pneumococcal vaccination rates were higher in PD compared to the patients on HD. The rate of children with influenza infection was higher than pneumonia. The efficacy of influenza and pneumococcal vaccines was highlighted by the low infection rates. Higher pneumonia rates in patients vaccinated against pneumococcus compared to unvaccinated ones might be due to coexisting risk factors.

Rapid response in the COVID-19 pandemic: a Delphi study from the European Pediatric Dialysis Working Group.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 was declared a global health emergency. Since children are less than 1% of reported cases, there is limited information to develop evidence-based practice recommendations. The objective of this study was to rapidly gather expert knowledge and experience to guide the care of children with chronic kidney disease during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: A four-round multi-center Delphi exercise was conducted among 13 centers in 11 European countries of the European Pediatric Dialysis Working Group (EPDWG) between March, 16th and 20th 2020. Results were analyzed using a mixed methods qualitative approach and descriptive statistics. RESULTS: Thirteen COVID-19 specific topics of particular need for guidance were identified. Main themes encompassed testing strategies and results (n = 4), changes in use of current therapeutics (n = 3), preventive measurements of transmission and management of COVID-19 (n = 3), and changes in standard clinical care (n = 3). Patterns of center-specific responses varied according to regulations and to availability of guidelines. CONCLUSIONS: As limited quantitative evidence is available in real time during the rapid spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, qualitative expert knowledge and experience represent the best evidence available. This Delphi exercise demonstrates that use of mixed methodologies embedded in an established network of experts allowed prompt analysis of pediatric nephrologists' response to COVID-19 during this fast-emerging public health crisis. Such rapid sharing of knowledge and local practices is essential to timely and optimal guidance for medical management of specific patient groups in multi-country health care systems such as those of Europe and the US.

CYP and SXR gene polymorphisms influence in opposite ways acute rejection rate in pediatric patients with renal transplant.

BACKGROUND: We evaluated the role of CYP3A5, ABCB1 and SXR gene polymorphisms in the occurrence of acute kidney rejection in a cohort of pediatric renal transplant recipients. METHODS: Forty-nine patients were genotyped for CYP3A5, ABCB1 and SXR polymorphisms and evaluated with tacrolimus through levels in a retrospective monocenter study. RESULTS: Patients with the A allele of CYP3A5 treated with tacrolimus had a higher risk of acute rejection than those without the A allele, while patients carrying the homozygous GG variant for SXR A7635GG did not show any episode of acute rejection. CONCLUSION: Genetic analysis of polymorphisms implicated in drug metabolism and tacrolimus trough levels may help to forecast the risk of acute rejection and individualize drug dosage in children undergoing renal transplantation.

Management of children with congenital nephrotic syndrome: challenging treatment paradigms.

BACKGROUND: Management of children with congenital nephrotic syndrome (CNS) is challenging. Bilateral nephrectomies followed by dialysis and transplantation are practiced in most centres, but conservative treatment may also be effective. METHODS: We conducted a 6-year review across members of the European Society for Paediatric Nephrology Dialysis Working Group to compare management strategies and their outcomes in children with CNS. RESULTS: Eighty children (50% male) across 17 tertiary nephrology units in Europe were included (mutations in NPHS1, n = 55; NPHS2, n = 1; WT1, n = 9; others, n = 15). Excluding patients with mutations in WT1, antiproteinuric treatment was given in 42 (59%) with an increase in S-albumin in 70% by median 6 (interquartile range: 3-8) g/L (P < 0.001). Following unilateral nephrectomy, S-albumin increased by 4 (1-8) g/L (P = 0.03) with a reduction in albumin infusion dose by 5 (2-9) g/kg/week (P = 0.02). Median age at bilateral nephrectomies (n = 29) was 9 (7-16) months. Outcomes were compared between two groups of NPHS1 patients: those who underwent bilateral nephrectomies (n = 25) versus those on conservative management (n = 17). The number of septic or thrombotic episodes and growth were comparable between the groups. The response to antiproteinuric treatment, as well as renal and patient survival, was independent of NPHS1 mutation type. At final follow-up (median age 34 months) 20 (80%) children in the nephrectomy group were transplanted and 1 died. In the conservative group, 9 (53%) remained without dialysis, 4 (24%; P < 0.001) were transplanted and 2 died. CONCLUSION: An individualized, stepwise approach with prolonged conservative management may be a reasonable alternative to early bilateral nephrectomies and dialysis in children with CNS and NPHS1 mutations. Further prospective studies are needed to define indications for unilateral nephrectomy.

Haemodiafiltration use in children: data from the Italian Pediatric Dialysis Registry.

BACKGROUND: High volume haemodiafiltration (HDF) is associated with better survival than conventional haemodialysis (HD) in adults, but data concerning its use in children are lacking. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of paediatric HDF use and its associated factors in recent years in Italy. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the files of patients from the Italian Pediatric Dialysis Registry's database who were registered between January 1, 2004 and December 31, 2016 and treated with extracorporeal dialysis for at least 6 months, looking in particular at modality and its associated factors. RESULTS: One hundred forty-one out of 198 patients were treated exclusively with bicarbonate HD (71.2%), 57 with HDF (28.8%). Patients treated with HDF were younger (median 9.7 vs 13.2 years, p = 0.0008), were less often incident patients (52.6% vs 75.9%, p = 0.0031), had longer duration of the HD cycle (26.9 vs 20.8 months, p = 0.0036) and had a longer time to renal transplantation (32 vs 25 months, p = 0.0029) than those treated with bicarbonate HD only. The percentage of patients treated with HDF increased with dialysis vintage (16.9% at 6 months, 38.1% after more than 2 years of dialysis). The use of HDF was stable over time and was more common in the largest centres. CONCLUSIONS: Over the observation period, HDF use in Italy has been limited to roughly a quarter of patients on extracorporeal dialysis, in particular to those with high dialysis vintage, younger age or a long expected waiting time to renal transplantation.

Infants with congenital nephrotic syndrome have comparable outcomes to infants with other renal diseases.

BACKGROUND: Children with congenital nephrotic syndrome (CNS) commonly develop end stage renal failure in infancy and require dialysis, but little is known about the complications and outcomes of dialysis in these children. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective case note review across members of the European Society for Pediatric Nephrology Dialysis Working Group to evaluate dialysis management, complications of dialysis, and outcomes in children with CNS. RESULTS: Eighty children (50% male) with CNS were identified form 17 centers over a 6-year period. Chronic dialysis was started in 44 (55%) children at a median age of 8 (interquartile range 4-14) months. Of these, 17 (39%) were on dialysis by the age of 6 months, 30 (68%) by 1 year, and 40 (91%) by 2 years. Peritoneal dialysis (PD) was the modality of choice in 93%, but 34% switched to hemodialysis (HD), largely due to catheter malfunction (n = 5) or peritonitis (n = 4). The peritonitis rate was 0.77 per patient-year. Weight and height SDS remained static after 6 months on dialysis. In the overall cohort, at final follow-up, 29 children were transplanted, 18 were still on dialysis (15 PD, 3 HD), 19 were in pre-dialysis chronic kidney disease (CKD), and there were 14 deaths (8 on dialysis). Median time on chronic dialysis until transplantation was 9 (6-18) months, and the median age at transplantation was 22 (14-28) months. CONCLUSIONS: Infants with CNS on dialysis have a comparable mortality, peritonitis rate, growth, and time to transplantation as infants with other primary renal diseases reported in international registry data.

Bioimpedance Spectroscopy Imprecisely Assesses Lean Body Mass in Pediatric Dialysis Patients.

OBJECTIVES: Alterations in body compositions are strongly associated with poor outcomes in end-stage renal disease patients. Hence, assessment of lean body mass is crucial for clinically monitoring these patients. The use of multifrequency bioimpedance spectroscopy measurements has also been advocated, but their usefulness in children is questioned. We investigated whether their application is appropriate for lean body mass measurement in pediatric patients receiving chronic dialysis. METHODS: Lean body mass estimates as assessed by multifrequency bioimpedance spectroscopy and by deuterium dilution were obtained for 15 patients (mean age 10.9 ±â€Š3.6 years). RESULTS: Lean body mass (mean ±â€Šstandard deviation) determined by bioimpedance was 24.2 ±â€Š10.7 and 24.4 ±â€Š10.3 kg by deuterium technique. Bland-Altman analysis showed a mean (±standard deviation) difference between the 2 methods of -0.25 ±â€Š2.30 kg with 95% limits of agreement of -4.80 to 4.25 kg. In a multiple linear regression model, the hydration status was associated with measurement bias after adjusting for age, sex, weight, and body surface area. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show a high level of agreement between measurements by bioimpedance and deuterium technique, but the limits of agreement were wide. These findings do not support the use of bioimpedance to individually assess lean body mass in pediatric dialysis patients with and without overhydration.

The first hour refill index: a promising marker of volume overload in children and young adults on chronic hemodialysis.

BACKGROUND: Volume overload is a known risk factor for cardiovascular complications in children on hemodialysis (HD), but a measurable index of volume overload is still lacking. METHODS: We propose a novel index of pre-HD volume overload based on blood volume (BV) monitoring, the first hour refill index (RI), calculated as the ratio between the ultrafiltration rate indexed for body weight during the first HD hour and the percent BV change at the first hour of the treatment. This parameter was retrospectively calculated in 121 sessions in 11 oligoanuric children and young adults on chronic HD, with median age 14.3 years (range 5.4-22.4), and its association with left-ventricular mass index, pre-HD blood pressure, and number of antihypertensive medications was evaluated. RESULTS: The median RI was 2.07 ml/kg/h/%. There was a significant correlation between RI and median LVMI (r 0.66, p = 0.028), which was 53.4 g/m2.7 (45.7-64) in patients with a median RI > 2, and 36.6 g/m2.7 (24.9-47) in those with a median RI < 2 ml/kg/h/% (p = 0.01). The number of antihypertensive drugs per patient was significantly higher in patients with a RI > 2 than in those with a RI < 2 ml/kg/h/% (three vs one per patient; p = 0.02) while blood pressure was not significantly different between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: The ratio between the ultrafiltration rate per body weight and the BV change during the first hour of a HD session could be a promising index of refill capacity and pre-HD volume overload in children and young adults on chronic HD.

Unacylated ghrelin and obestatin: promising biomarkers of protein energy wasting in children with chronic kidney disease.

BACKGROUND: Impairment in orexigenic/anorexigenic hormone balance may be key in the pathogenesis of protein energy wasting in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Measurement of ghrelin and obestatin concentrations in children with CKD would help assess the potential contribution of these hormones to uremic protein energy wasting. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional case-control study. Acylated and unacylated ghrelin and obestatin were measured in 42 children on conservative treatment (CT), 20 children on hemodialysis, 48 pediatric renal transplant (RTx) recipients and 43 controls (CTR) (mean age 11.9, range 5-20 years). Weight, height and bicipital, tricipital, subscapular and suprailiac folds were measured, and the body mass index-standard deviation score (BMI-SDS), percentage of fat mass and fat-free mass were calculated. Urea and creatinine were measured and the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) calculated. RESULTS: Unacylated ghrelin level was higher in patients than controls (p = 0.0001), with the highest levels found in hemodialysis patients (p = 0.001 vs. CKD-CT, p = 0.0001 vs. RTx, p < 0.0001 vs. CTR). Obestatin level was significantly higher in patients on hemodialysis than those on conservative treatment, RTx recipients and controls (p < 0.0001 in each case). Unacylated ghrelin negatively correlated with weight-SDS (p < 0.0001), BMI-SDS (p = 0.0005) and percentage fat mass (p = 0.004) and positively correlated with percentage fat-free mass (p = 0.004). Obestatin concentration negatively correlated with weight-SDS (p = 0.007). Unacylated ghrelin and obestatin concentrations positively correlated with creatinine and urea and inversely with eGFR, even after adjustments for gender, age, puberty and BMI-SDS (p < 0.0001 for each model). CONCLUSIONS: Unacylated ghrelin and obestatin, negatively related to renal function, seem to be promising inverse indicators of nutritional status in children with CKD. Potential therapeutic implications in terms of optimization of their removal in patients on hemodialysis could be hypothesized.

Renal Replacement Therapy in children with severe developmental disability: guiding questions for decision-making.

Whether to initiate or to withhold Renal Replacement Therapy (RRT) in children with severe developmental disability (DD) remains a topic of intense debate. The present study investigated the opinion of professionals on this difficult issue and proposed a checklist with guiding questions for decision-making. Clinicians affiliated to different organizations involved in pediatric nephrology worldwide were invited to respond to a web-based survey. This survey focused on the collection of demographic data of the respondents together with their opinion concerning the decision-making regarding RRT in a particular case and for children with severe DD in general. A total of 286 professionals responded to the survey. Sixty-six percent supported initiating RRT in the child of the case report, with pre-emptive transplantation being the preferred modality. Important arguments pro RRT initiation in children with severe DD in general were parental preference, decrease of suffering, and improvement of survival and quality of life. Important contraindications included low IQ, severe comorbidities, and inability of the patient to take medication or for the family to provide sufficient care.Conclusion: The present study presents an inventory on the opinions of health care professionals involved in RRT in children regarding the treatment of children with DD and assists in the decision-making process by identifying important medical and psychosocial arguments for initiating or withholding RRT in severe DD patients. What is Known: •Renal Replacement Therapy (RRT) in children with severe developmental disability (DD) is a topic of intense debate. •Previous studies on the opinion of professionals mainly focused on the use of IQ as an argument in the decision-making whether or not starting RRT. What is New: •The present study investigated the opinion of professionals with regard to considering initiation or withholding RRT in children with severe DD and identified medical and psychosocial arguments playing a role in the decision-making process. •Based on these arguments, a checklist with guiding questions for decision-making is proposed.

Fatty Acids in Nephrotic Syndrome and Chronic Kidney Disease.

The role of fatty acids (FAs) in inflammation and in the related chronic diseases has been demonstrated. However, there is a lack of consistent and agreed knowledge about the role of FA profile and renal physiology and pathology, most articles focusing on the effect of polyunsaturated FAs supplementation, without considering the impact of basal FA metabolism on the efficacy of the supplementation. Here, we have summarized the specific literature concerning the assessment of circulating FA in 2 renal diseases, namely nephrotic syndrome and chronic kidney disease, also under hemodialytic treatment, and have received the most significant contributions in the last years. The effects of changes of FA profile and metabolism and the possible involvement of polyunsaturated FA metabolites in raising and modulating inflammation are discussed.

Bioimpedance and Fluid Status in Children and Adolescents Treated With Dialysis.

BACKGROUND: Assessment of hydration status in patients with chronic kidney failure treated by dialysis is crucial for clinical management decisions. Dilution techniques are considered the gold standard for measurement of body fluid volumes, but they are unfit for day-to-day care. Multifrequency bioimpedance has been shown to be of help in clinical practice in adults and its use in children and adolescents has been advocated. We investigated whether application of multifrequency bioimpedance is appropriate for total-body water (TBW) and extracellular water (ECW) measurement in children and adolescents on dialysis therapy. STUDY DESIGN: A study of diagnostic test accuracy. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: 16 young dialysis patients (before a hemodialysis session or after peritoneal dialysis treatment) from the Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy, and the Emma Children's Hospital-Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. INDEX TEST: TBW and ECW volumes assessed by multifrequency bioimpedance. REFERENCE TESTS: TBW and ECW volumes measured by deuterium and bromide dilution, respectively. RESULTS: Mean TBW volumes determined by multifrequency bioimpedance and deuterium dilution were 19.2±8.7 (SD) and 19.3±8.3L, respectively; Bland-Altman analysis showed a mean bias between the 2 methods of -0.09 (95% limits of agreement, -2.1 to 1.9) L. Mean ECW volumes were 8.9±4.0 and 8.3±3.3L measured by multifrequency bioimpedance and bromide dilution, respectively; mean bias between the 2 ECW measurements was +0.6 (95% limits of agreement, -2.3 to 3.5). LIMITATIONS: Participants ingested the deuterated water at home without direct supervision by investigators, small number of patients, repeated measurements in individual patients were not performed. CONCLUSIONS: Multifrequency bioimpedance measurements were unbiased but imprecise in comparison to dilution techniques. We conclude that multifrequency bioimpedance measurements cannot precisely estimate TBW and ECW in children receiving dialysis.

Clinical practice recommendations for native vitamin D therapy in children with chronic kidney disease Stages 2-5 and on dialysis.

Vitamin D deficiency is widely prevalent and often severe in children and adults with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Although native vitamin D {25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D]} is thought to have pleiotropic effects on many organ systems, its skeletal effects have been most widely studied. The 25(OH)D deficiency is causally linked with rickets and fractures in healthy children and those with CKD, contributing to the CKD-mineral and bone disorder (MBD) complex. There are few studies to provide evidence for vitamin D therapy or guidelines for its use in CKD. A core working group (WG) of the European Society for Paediatric Nephrology (ESPN) CKD-MBD and Dialysis WGs have developed recommendations for the evaluation, treatment and prevention of vitamin D deficiency in children with CKD. We present clinical practice recommendations for the use of ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) in children with CKD Stages 2-5 and on dialysis. A parallel document addresses treatment recommendations for active vitamin D analogue therapy. The WG has performed an extensive literature review to include meta-analyses and randomized controlled trials in healthy children as well as children and adults with CKD, and prospective observational studies in children with CKD. The Grading of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) system has been used to develop and grade the recommendations. In the absence of applicable study data, the opinion of experts from the ESPN CKD-MBD and Dialysis WGs is provided, but clearly GRADE-ed as such and must be carefully considered by the treating physician, and adapted to individual patient needs as appropriate.

Clinical practice recommendations for treatment with active vitamin D analogues in children with chronic kidney disease Stages 2-5 and on dialysis.

In patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), renal synthesis of active vitamin D [1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)2D)] declines and is associated with hypocalcaemia, secondary hyperparathyroidism and the spectrum of CKD-mineral and bone disorder (MBD). In advanced CKD, active vitamin D analogues, including alfacalcidol, calcitriol and paricalcitol, are routinely administered. There are few studies on the use of vitamin D analogues in children with CKD and on dialysis. It is difficult to define bone-specific outcomes that can guide treatment with active vitamin D analogues in children with CKD-MBD. A core working group (WG) of the European Society for Paediatric Nephrology (ESPN) CKD-MBD and Dialysis WGs has developed recommendations for the use of active vitamin D therapy in children with CKD and on dialysis. A second document in parallel with this one covers treatment recommendations for native vitamin D therapy. The WGs have performed an extensive literature review to include systematic reviews and randomized controlled trials in adults and children with CKD and prospective observational studies in children with CKD. The Grading of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) system was used to develop and grade the recommendations. In the absence of applicable study data, the opinion of experts from the ESPN CKD-MBD and Dialysis WGs is provided, but clearly GRADE-ed as such and must be carefully considered by the treating physician and adapted to individual patient needs as appropriate.