Nephrin Contributes to Insulin Secretion and Affects Mammalian Target of Rapamycin Signaling Independently of Insulin Receptor.

Nephrin belongs to a family of highly conserved proteins with a well characterized function as modulators of cell adhesion and guidance, and nephrin may have a role in metabolic pathways linked to podocyte and pancreatic ß-cell survival. However, this role is incompletely characterized. In this study, we developed floxed nephrin mice for pancreatic ß-cell-specific deletion of nephrin, which had no effect on islet size and glycemia. Nephrin deficiency, however, resulted in glucose intolerance in vivo and impaired glucose-stimulated insulin release ex vivo Glucose intolerance was also observed in eight patients with nephrin mutations compared with three patients with other genetic forms of nephrotic syndrome or nine healthy controls.In vitro experiments were conducted to investigate if nephrin affects autocrine signaling through insulin receptor A (IRA) and B (IRB), which are both expressed in human podocytes and pancreatic islets. Coimmunoprecipitation of nephrin and IRB but not IRA was observed and required IR phosphorylation. Nephrin per se was sufficient to induce phosphorylation of p70S6K in an phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent but IR/Src-independent manner, which was not augmented by exogenous insulin. These results suggest a role for nephrin as an independent modulator of podocyte and pancreatic ß-cell nutrient sensing in the fasting state and the potential of nephrin as a drug target in diabetes.

Noninvasive in vivo model demonstrating the effects of autonomic innervation on pancreatic islet function.

The autonomic nervous system is thought to modulate blood glucose homeostasis by regulating endocrine cell activity in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans. The role of islet innervation, however, has remained elusive because the direct effects of autonomic nervous input on islet cell physiology cannot be studied in the pancreas. Here, we used an in vivo model to study the role of islet nervous input in glucose homeostasis. We transplanted islets into the anterior chamber of the eye and found that islet grafts became densely innervated by the rich parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous supply of the iris. Parasympathetic innervation was imaged intravitally by using transgenic mice expressing GFP in cholinergic axons. To manipulate selectively the islet nervous input, we increased the ambient illumination to increase the parasympathetic input to the islet grafts via the pupillary light reflex. This reduced fasting glycemia and improved glucose tolerance. These effects could be blocked by topical application of the muscarinic antagonist atropine to the eye, indicating that local cholinergic innervation had a direct effect on islet function in vivo. By using this approach, we found that parasympathetic innervation influences islet function in C57BL/6 mice but not in 129X1 mice, which reflected differences in innervation densities and may explain major strain differences in glucose homeostasis. This study directly demonstrates that autonomic axons innervating the islet modulate glucose homeostasis.

ATP-gated P2X3 receptors constitute a positive autocrine signal for insulin release in the human pancreatic beta cell.

Extracellular ATP has been proposed as a paracrine signal in rodent islets, but it is unclear what role ATP plays in human islets. We now show the presence of an ATP signaling pathway that enhances the human beta cell's sensitivity and responsiveness to glucose fluctuations. By using in situ hybridization, RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry, and Western blotting as well as recordings of cytoplasmic-free Ca(2+) concentration, [Ca(2+)](i), and hormone release in vitro, we show that human beta cells express ionotropic ATP receptors of the P2X(3) type and that activation of these receptors by ATP coreleased with insulin amplifies glucose-induced insulin secretion. Released ATP activates P2X(3) receptors in the beta-cell plasma membrane, resulting in increased [Ca(2+)](i) and enhanced insulin secretion. Therefore, in human islets, released ATP forms a positive autocrine feedback loop that sensitizes the beta cell's secretory machinery. This may explain how the human pancreatic beta cell can respond so effectively to relatively modest changes in glucose concentration under physiological conditions in vivo.

Automated, high-throughput assays for evaluation of human pancreatic islet function.

An important challenge in pancreatic islet transplantation in association with type 1 diabetes is to define automatic high-throughput assays for evaluation of human islet function. The physiological techniques presently used are amenable to small-scale experimental samples and produce descriptive results. The postgenomic era provides an opportunity to analyze biological processes on a larger scale, but the transition to high-throughput technologies is still a challenge. As a first step to implement high-throughput assays for the study of human islet function, we have developed two methodologies: multiple automated perifusion to determine islet hormone secretion and high-throughput kinetic imaging to examine islet cellular responses. Both technologies use fully automated devices that allow performing simultaneous experiments on multiple islet preparations. Our results illustrate that these technologies can be applied to study the functional status and explore the pharmacological profiles of islet cells. These methodologies will enable functional characterization of human islet preparations before transplantation and thereby provide the basis for the establishment of predictive tests for beta-cell potency.

Control of insulin secretion by cholinergic signaling in the human pancreatic islet.

Acetylcholine regulates hormone secretion from the pancreatic islet and is thus crucial for glucose homeostasis. Little is known, however, about acetylcholine (cholinergic) signaling in the human islet. We recently reported that in the human islet, acetylcholine is primarily a paracrine signal released from α-cells rather than primarily a neural signal as in rodent islets. In this study, we demonstrate that the effects acetylcholine produces in the human islet are different and more complex than expected from studies conducted on cell lines and rodent islets. We found that endogenous acetylcholine not only stimulates the insulin-secreting ß-cell via the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors M3 and M5, but also the somatostatin-secreting δ-cell via M1 receptors. Because somatostatin is a strong inhibitor of insulin secretion, we hypothesized that cholinergic input to the δ-cell indirectly regulates ß-cell function. Indeed, when all muscarinic signaling was blocked, somatostatin secretion decreased and insulin secretion unexpectedly increased, suggesting a reduced inhibitory input to ß-cells. Endogenous cholinergic signaling therefore provides direct stimulatory and indirect inhibitory input to ß-cells to regulate insulin secretion from the human islet.

Maternal inheritance of an inactive type III deiodinase gene allele affects mouse pancreatic ß-cells and disrupts glucose homeostasis.

Dio3 is the most distal gene of the imprinted Dlk1-Dio3 gene locus and is expressed according to parental origin. Dio3 encodes the type 3 deiodinase (D3), a thioredoxin-fold like containing selenoenzyme that inactivates thyroid hormone and dampens thyroid hormone signaling. Here we used heterozygous animals with disruption of the Dio3 gene to study the allelic expression pattern of Dio3 in pancreatic ß-cells and the metabolic phenotype resulting from its inactivation. Adult heterozygous mice with disruption of the Dio3 gene with maternal inheritance of the inactive Dio3 allele exhibited a total loss of D3 activity in isolated pancreatic islets, approximately 30% reduction in total pancreatic islet area, a marked decrease in insulin2 mRNA and in vivo glucose intolerance. In contrast, inheritance of the inactive Dio3 allele from the father did not affect D3 activity in isolated pancreatic islets and did not result in a pancreatic phenotype. Furthermore, exposure of pancreatic explants, D3-expressing MIN6-C3 cells or isolated pancreatic islets to 100 nM T3 for 24 hours reduced insulin2 mRNA by approximately 50% and the peak of glucose-induced insulin secretion. An unbiased analysis of T3-treated pancreatic islets revealed the down-regulation of 21 gene sets (false discovery rate q value < 25%) involved in nucleolar function and transcription of rRNA, ribonucleotide binding, mRNA translation, and membrane organization. We conclude that the Dio3 gene is preferentially expressed from the maternal allele in pancreatic islets and that the inactivation of this allele is sufficient to disrupt glucose homeostasis by reducing the pancreatic islet area, insulin2 gene expression, and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion.

Alpha cells secrete acetylcholine as a non-neuronal paracrine signal priming beta cell function in humans.

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that has a major role in the function of the insulin-secreting pancreatic beta cell. Parasympathetic innervation of the endocrine pancreas, the islets of Langerhans, has been shown to provide cholinergic input to the beta cell in several species, but the role of autonomic innervation in human beta cell function is at present unclear. Here we show that, in contrast to the case in mouse islets, cholinergic innervation of human islets is sparse. Instead, we find that the alpha cells of human islets provide paracrine cholinergic input to surrounding endocrine cells. Human alpha cells express the vesicular acetylcholine transporter and release acetylcholine when stimulated with kainate or a lowering in glucose concentration. Acetylcholine secretion by alpha cells in turn sensitizes the beta cell response to increases in glucose concentration. Our results demonstrate that in human islets acetylcholine is a paracrine signal that primes the beta cell to respond optimally to subsequent increases in glucose concentration. Cholinergic signaling within islets represents a potential therapeutic target in diabetes, highlighting the relevance of this advance to future drug development.

The thyroid hormone-inactivating type III deiodinase is expressed in mouse and human beta-cells and its targeted inactivation impairs insulin secretion.

Deiodinases are selenoproteins that activate or inactivate thyroid hormone. During vertebrate development, these pathways control thyroid hormone action in a cell-specific fashion explaining how systemic thyroid hormone can affect local control of tissue embryogenesis. Here we investigated the role of the thyroid hormone-inactivating deiodinase (D3) in pancreatic islet function and glucose homeostasis. D3 expression was determined by real-time PCR, immunofluorescence, and enzyme activity. Embryonic and adult wild-type mice and Mice with targeted disruption of Dio3 gene (D3KO) as well as human fetal pancreas and adult islets were studied. Insulin secretion was evaluated in adult mouse isolated islets. We found Dio3 gene expression and protein highly expressed in embryonic and adult pancreatic islets, predominantly in ß-cells in both humans and mice. However, mRNA levels were barely detectable for both the thyroid hormone-activating deiodinases types 1 and 2. D3KO animals were found to be glucose intolerant due to in vitro and in vivo impaired glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, without changes in peripheral sensitivity to insulin. D3KO neonatal (postnatal day 0) and adult pancreas exhibited reduced total islet area due to reduced ß-cell mass, insulin content, and impaired expression of key ß-cells genes. D3 expression in perinatal pancreatic ß-cells prevents untimely exposure to thyroid hormone, the absence of which leads to impaired ß-cell function and subsequently insulin secretion and glucose homeostasis. An analogous role is likely in humans, given the similar D3 expression pattern.

Glutamate is a positive autocrine signal for glucagon release.

An important feature of glucose homeostasis is the effective release of glucagon from the pancreatic alpha cell. The molecular mechanisms regulating glucagon secretion are still poorly understood. We now demonstrate that human alpha cells express ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) that are essential for glucagon release. A lowering in glucose concentration results in the release of glutamate from the alpha cell. Glutamate then acts on iGluRs of the AMPA/kainate type, resulting in membrane depolarization, opening of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels, increase in cytoplasmic free Ca(2+) concentration, and enhanced glucagon release. In vivo blockade of iGluRs reduces glucagon secretion and exacerbates insulin-induced hypoglycemia in mice. Hence, the glutamate autocrine feedback loop endows the alpha cell with the ability to effectively potentiate its own secretory activity. This is a prerequisite to guarantee adequate glucagon release despite relatively modest changes in blood glucose concentration under physiological conditions.

Automated, High-Throughput Assays for Evaluation of Human Pancreatic Islet Function.

An important challenge in pancreatic islet transplantation in association with type 1 diabetes is to define automatic high-throughput assays for evaluation of human islet function. The physiological techniques presently used are amenable to small-scale experimental samples and produce descriptive results. The postgenomic era provides an opportunity to analyze biological processes on a larger scale, but the transition to high-throughput technologies is still a challenge. As a first step to implement high-throughput assays for the study of human islet function, we have developed two methodologies: multiple automated perifusion to determine islet hormone secretion and high-throughput kinetic imaging to examine islet cellular responses. Both technologies use fully automated devices that allow performing simultaneous experiments on multiple islet preparations. Our results illustrate that these technologies can be applied to study the functional status and explore the pharmacological profiles of islet cells. These methodologies will enable functional characterization of human islet preparations before transplantation and thereby provide the basis for the establishment of predictive tests for ß-cell potency.

Protective effect of a naked DNA vaccine cocktail against lethal toxoplasmosis in mice.

BALB/c mice were intramuscularly immunized with low doses (25-50microg) of DNA cocktail containing plasmids encoding the full-length SAG1/P30 and the 196-561 terminal sequence of ROP2 genes. This immunization resulted in a Th1-type response with predominance of IgG2a and a specific T-cell proliferation with high levels of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) secretion, whereas no IL-4 was detected. Moreover, DNA cocktail immunization induced a long-lasting protection against a lethal challenge with the highly virulent Toxoplasma gondii RH strain, whereas low doses of single genes were not protective. These results support further investigations to achieve a multigene anti-T. gondii DNA vaccine.

Long-term protective immune response elicited by vaccination with an expression genomic library of Toxoplasma gondii.

Immunization of BALB/c mice with an expression genomic library of Toxoplasma gondii induces a Th1-type immune response, with recognition of several T. gondii proteins (21 to 117 kDa) and long-term protective immunity against a lethal challenge. These results support further investigations to achieve a multicomponent anti-T. gondii DNA vaccine.

Identificación de una fuente humana de alimentación de mosquitos mediante la técnica de coaglutinación / Identification of a human source for feeding mosquitoes by the coagglutination technique

Se describe la utilización de la técnica de coaglutinación para la identificación de una fuente humana de alimentación de mosquitos. La dilución de las muestras de sangre ingeridas en papel de filtro se hizo en 2 mL de una solución de cloruro de sodio al 0,85 por ciento. Se utilizó una suspensión de estafilococos sensibilizados con un suero normal de conejo como control negativo. La suspensión de Staphylococcus aureus sensibilizados con suero de conejo anti-proteínas plasmáticas humanas y suero de conejo anti-IgG humana discriminó bien entre sangre humana y no humana. No se observó aglutinación con el control negativo. Esta técnica resultó se sensible para identificar el 100 por ciento de las muestras de sangre humana llevadas al papel 24 h después de que los moquitos completaron su alimentación a una temperatura de 26 a 28ºC. En mosquitos alimentados y conectados en el campo, la prueba se comportó de forma satisfactoria, en consecuencia puede ser utilizada en trabajos de rutina en el campo. Los resultados mostraron la sensibilidad y especificidad de este método para la identificación de sangre humana ingerida por mosquitos

Toxoplasma gondii: caracterización de un anticuerpo monoclonal anti-P30

Se caracterizó un anticuerpo monoclonal específico a Toxoplasma gondii. El hibridoma produjo inmunoglobulinas IgG. El análisis por Western Blot demostró que el anticuerpo monoclonal fue específico para el antígeno de masa molecular aparente de 30 kd, presente en la superficie del parásito. El anticuerpo monoclonal se purificó a partir de fluido ascítico de ratón y se acopló a Sefarosa 4B. Este inmunoabsorbente fue utilizado con el fin de purificar el antígeno parasitario específico. El anticuerpo monoclonal estudiado puede ser de utilidad para las técnicas que contribuyan con el diagnóstico de la toxoplasmosis.

A specific monoclonal antibody was characterized to Toxoplasma gondii. The hybridoma produced IgG immunoglobulins. The Western Blot analysis showed that the monoclonal antibody was specific for the antigen of an apparent mollecular mass of 30 kd, which was present on the antigen surface. The monoclonal antibody was purified starting from mouse´s ascitic fluid and it was matched with Sepharose 4B. This immunoabsorbent was used to purify the specific parasitary antigen. The monoclonal antibody studied may be useful for those tecniques contributing to the toxoplasmosis diagnosis.

Toxoplasma gondii antigenuria in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome

A longitudinal study was performed with sera and urine of patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), taken before, during and after clinically Toxoplasma infection. The tested patients were followed for an average of two years. The titres of the specific IgG and IgM antibodies were measured by an indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT), and the appearance of circulating antigens of T. gondii was determined in 36 urine samples of 13 patients with neurotoxoplasmosis by means of the coagglutination test. The presence of T. gondii antigens in the urine of AIDS patients by this test was correlated with the immunoblot technique, with clinical symptoms and also with pathological findings. Our results indicate that the detection of T. gondii antigens in the urine of AIDS patients can be regarded as a rapid and efficient method for the diagnosis of acute toxoplasmosis.

Technique for the detection of Toxoplasma gondii antigens in mouse urine

A simple and rapid staphylococcal coagglutination test for the detection of Toxoplasma gondii antigens in mice urine is described. A suspension of protein-A containing Staphylococcus aureus coated with rabbit hyperimmune serum was used as reagent. The sensitivity of the antigen assay was found to be at least 118 ng of the antigen protein per ml. No coagglutination was observed when the reagent was challenged against antigenic solutions of other parasites. The suitability of the method for detecting antigens of T. gondii in urine samples was studied by experimental toxoplasma infection in mice. Before the staphylococcal test, the urine samples were double serially diluted in 0.1 M PBS. From the second day on all samples from infected mice were positive at 1/16 dilution. At this dilution, all samples from non infected mice were negative or did not produce coagglutination. This method might be used in the rapid etiological diagnosis also in human cases of acute toxoplasmosis

Usefulness of the detection of Toxoplasma gondii of antigens in AIDS patients

La Encefalitis Toxoplasmica (ET) es la mas importante complicacion infecciosa del Sistema Nirvioso Central en pacientes de SIDA. Anticuerpos ant-Toxoplasma gondiin fueron detectados en 57 de 79 pacientes de SIDA (71 por cento). De estos seropositivos, desarrollaron la enfermedad (ET) 14 (25 por cento), en los que coincidentemente se detecto la presencia de antigeno del parasito en orina y por tanto fueron objeto de una terapia efectiva, con la subsecuente desaparicion de los sintomas y de los antigenos excretados. Por los resultados del presente trabajo, consideramos lo util de monitorear en estos pacientes la presencia de antigenos de T. gondii con el objetivo de aplicar oportunamente metodos quimoprofilacticos que eviten el surgimiento de manisfestaciones neurologicas en estos pacientes.

Identificación de una fuente humana de alimentación de mosquitos mediante la técnica de coaglutinación / Identification of a human source for feeding mosquitoes by the coagglutination technique

Se describe la utilización de la técnica de coaglutinación para la identificación de una fuente humana de alimentación de mosquitos. La dilución de las muestras de sangre ingeridas en papel de filtro se hizo en 2 mL de una solución de cloruro de sodio al 0,85 por ciento. Se utilizó una suspensión de estafilococos sensibilizados con un suero normal de conejo como control negativo. La suspensión de Staphylococcus aureus sensibilizados con suero de conejo anti-proteínas plasmáticas humanas y suero de conejo anti-IgG humana discriminó bien entre sangre humana y no humana. No se observó aglutinación con el control negativo. Esta técnica resultó se sensible para identificar el 100 por ciento de las muestras de sangre humana llevadas al papel 24 h después de que los moquitos completaron su alimentación a una temperatura de 26 a 28ºC. En mosquitos alimentados y conectados en el campo, la prueba se comportó de forma satisfactoria, en consecuencia puede ser utilizada en trabajos de rutina en el campo. Los resultados mostraron la sensibilidad y especificidad de este método para la identificación de sangre humana ingerida por mosquitos(AU)

Toxoplasma gondii: caracterización de un anticuerpo monoclonal anti-P30 / Toxoplasma gondii: characterization fo an anti-P30 monoclonal antibody

Se caracterizó un anticuerpo monoclonal específico a Toxoplasma gondii. El hibridoma produjo inmunoglobulinas IgG. El análisis por Western Blot demostró que el anticuerpo monoclonal fue específico para el antígeno de masa molecular aparente de 30 kd, presente en la superficie del parásito. El anticuerpo monoclonal se purificó a partir de fluido ascítico de ratón y se acopló a Sefarosa 4B. Este inmunoabsorbente fue utilizado con el fin de purificar el antígeno parasitario específico. El anticuerpo monoclonal estudiado puede ser de utilidad para las técnicas que contribuyan con el diagnóstico de la toxoplasmosis(AU)