Prevalence of psychiatric disorders among incarcerated women. II. Convicted felons entering prison.

BACKGROUND: No unbiased estimates of the rates of psychiatric disorder among women prison inmates are available. Nonetheless, available data suggest that some psychiatric disorders are prevalent in this population. The objective of the study was to determine the rates, risk factors, and outcomes of specific psychiatric disorders among women prison inmates. METHODS: A virtual census of women felons (N = 805) entering prison in North Carolina was assessed using in-person interviews. Assessments were conducted for 8 disorders, using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview as the primary assessment measure. For validation purposes, one quarter of the inmates were reassessed for 2 of these disorders, using structured clinical interviews. RESULTS: Inmates were found to have high rates of substance abuse and dependence and antisocial and border-line personality disorders compared with women in community epidemiologic studies. Rates among inmates were also somewhat elevated for mood disorders but not for anxiety disorders. The rate of reports of lifetime exposure to traumatic events was also high. Rates of disorder tended to be higher among white than among African American women. CONCLUSION: High rates of substance abuse, psychiatric disorder, and psychological distress associated with exposure to traumatic events suggest that women in prison have a need for treatment for substance abuse and other mental health problems.

Lifetime and current prevalence of specific psychiatric disorders among Vietnam veterans and controls.

To determine if Vietnam theater veterans were more likely than controls to have a specific psychiatric disorder other than posttraumatic stress disorder, the rates of specific psychiatric disorders were estimated using the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for national samples of veterans who served in Vietnam, other veterans of the Vietnam era, and matched civilian controls. Overall, there were few differences in rates of disorder between theater and other veterans; there were somewhat more differences between theater veterans and civilians. There were striking differences, however, in rates for most disorders, both lifetime and current, between male theater veterans with high levels of exposure to war zone stress and other male veterans or civilians. Female veterans exposed to high levels of war zone stress also had higher rates than other female respondents for several disorders.

Psychometric detection of fabricated symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder.

Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder and two groups instructed to fabricate its symptoms completed the MMPI. A discriminant function analysis of selected scale scores and an empirically derived decision rule successfully classified over 90% of the subjects.

Health status, somatization, and severity of posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder.

OBJECTIVE: A two-part study was conducted to examine the health status of Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In part 1, veterans with and without PTSD were compared on health behaviors and on self-reported and physician-rated health problems. Consistency of self-report with physician rating for health problems across the two groups was compared. In part 2, the association between health status and PTSD symptom severity, depression, somatization, and health behaviors in PTSD patients was evaluated. METHOD: In part 1, 276 combat veterans (225 with PTSD and 51 without PTSD) provided health status information, and medical records were reviewed. In part 2, 225 PTSD patients completed standardized PTSD severity, somatization, and depression measures. RESULTS: When analyses controlled for age, socioeconomic status, minority status, combat exposure, alcohol use, and pack-year history, veterans with PTSD reported and were rated as having a greater number of health problems than veterans without PTSD. Agreement between self-report and physician ratings for both groups ranged from low to moderate. Level of agreement between patient and physician was similar across groups. In the analysis of veterans with PTSD, somatization and PTSD symptom severity were significantly related to self-report of health problems, whereas only PTSD symptom severity was related to physician-rated health. Pack-year history was significantly related to self-reported health status in both groups. CONCLUSIONS: The presence and severity of PTSD in veterans were associated with greater physical health problems and conditions. Psychological variables (e.g., PTSD status, PTSD severity, somatization) and a behavioral variable (pack-year history) were related to health status.

Peritraumatic dissociation and posttraumatic stress in male Vietnam theater veterans.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine the reliability and validity of a proposed measure of peritraumatic dissociation and, as part of that effort, to determine the relationship between dissociative experiences during disturbing combat trauma and the subsequent development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). METHOD: A total of 251 male Vietnam theater veterans from the Clinical Examination Component of the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study were examined to determine the relationship of war zone stress exposure, retrospective reports of dissociation during the most disturbing combat trauma events, and general dissociative tendencies with PTSD case determination. RESULTS: The total score on the Peritraumatic Dissociation Experiences Questionnaire--Rater Version was strongly associated with level of posttraumatic stress symptoms, level of stress exposure, and general dissociative tendencies and weakly associated with general psychopathology scales from the MMPI-2. Logistic regression analyses supported the incremental value of dissociation during trauma, over and above the contributions of level of war zone stress exposure and general dissociative tendencies, in accounting for PTSD case determination. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide support for the reliability and validity of the Peritraumatic Dissociation Experiences Questionnaire--Rater Version and for a trauma-dissociation linkage hypothesis: the greater the dissociation during traumatic stress exposure, the greater the likelihood of meeting criteria for current PTSD.

Patterns of appraisal and coping across different stressor conditions among former prisoners of war with and without posttraumatic stress disorder.

Little is known about how survivors of extreme events cope with traumatic memories and subsequent negative life experiences. The present study compared (a) repatriated prisoners of war (RPWs) from World War II (WW II) with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), (b) RPWs without PTSD, and (c) noncombat veterans on measures of general psychological functioning, appraisal, and coping. Appraisal and coping were assessed under 2 stressor conditions: memories of war/captivity and recent negative life events. RPWs with PTSD reported poorer general psychological functioning; significantly less control over memories of WW II: and more frequent use of self-isolation, wishful thinking, self-blame, and social support in an effort to cope with these memories than did the 2 comparison groups. Fewer between-groups differences were found for the recent stressor condition. Findings are discussed in terms of factors that may explain the perseverance of coping difficulties associated with PTSD.

Problems in families of male Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder.

Interviews were conducted with a nationally representative sample of 1,200 male Vietnam veterans and the spouses or co-resident partners of 376 of these veterans. The veteran interview contained questions to determine the presence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and items tapping family and marital adjustment, parenting problems, and violence. The spouse or partner (S/P) interview assessed the S/P's view of these items, as well as her view of her own mental health, drug, and alcohol problems and behavioral problems of school-aged children living at home. Compared with families of male veterans without current PTSD, families of male veterans with current PTSD showed markedly elevated levels of severe and diffuse problems in marital and family adjustment, in parenting skills, and in violent behavior. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Ambulatory cardiovascular activity in Vietnam combat veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder.

The present study investigated the relationship between daily diary affect ratings and ambulatory cardiovascular activity in 117 male Vietnam combat veterans (61 with posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD] and 56 without PTSD). Participants completed 12-14 hr of ambulatory monitoring and daily diary affect ratings. Compared with veterans without PTSD, veterans with PTSD reported higher negative affect and lower positive affect in daily diary ratings. No differences were detected for mean laboratory initial recordings or mean ambulatory heart rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP), or diastolic blood pressure (DBP). However, compared with veterans without PTSD, veterans with PTSD demonstrated higher SBP and DBP variability and a higher proportion of HR activity (compared with initial recording values) during daily activity. There was a significant Time of Day x Group interaction for mean HR, with a trend for PTSD participants to maintain HR levels during evening hours.

Posttraumatic stress disorder in a national sample of female and male Vietnam veterans: risk factors, war-zone stressors, and resilience-recovery variables.

Relationships among pretrauma risk factors (e.g., family instability, childhood antisocial behavior), war-zone stressors (e.g., combat, perceived threat), posttrauma resilience-recovery variables (e.g., hardiness, social support), and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity were examined. Data from a national sample of 432 female and 1,200 male veterans were analyzed using structural equation modeling. For both genders, direct links to PTSD from pretrauma, war-zone, and posttrauma variable categories were found; several direct associations between pretrauma and posttrauma variables were documented. Although war-zone stressors appeared preeminent for PTSD in men, posttrauma resilience-recovery variables were more salient for women. Researchers, policymakers, and clinicians are urged to take a broad view on trauma and its sequelae, especially regarding possible multiple exposures over time and the depletion and availability of important resources.

Resilience-recovery factors in post-traumatic stress disorder among female and male Vietnam veterans: hardiness, postwar social support, and additional stressful life events.

Structural equation modeling procedures were used to examine relationships among several war zone stressor dimensions, resilience-recovery factors, and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in a national sample of 1,632 Vietnam veterans (26% women and 74% men). A 9-factor measurement model was specified on a mixed-gender subsample of the data and then replicated on separate subsamples of female and male veterans. For both genders, the structural models supported strong mediation effects for the intrapersonal resource characteristic of hardiness, postwar structural and functional social support, and additional negative life events in the postwar period. Support for moderator effects or buffering in terms of interactions between war zone stressor level and resilience-recovery factors was minimal.

Self-efficacy expectations among traumatized adolescents.

Bandura's Multidimensional Scales of Perceived Self-Efficacy (MSPSE) were administered to three matched groups of adolescents. The first group met diagnostic criteria for PTSD. The second had been exposed to qualitatively and quantitatively similar stressors and did not meet criteria for PTSD (traumatized PTSD negatives). The third group consisted of non-traumatized controls. Data analysis revealed that the adolescents with PTSD had appreciably lower self-efficacy ratings on eight of the nine subtests that comprise the MSPSE. Non-significant differences were observed when the MSPSE subtest scores of the traumatized PTSD negatives and controls were compared.

Cocaine use by clients in methadone programs: significance, scope, and behavioral interventions.

Widespread use of cocaine by methadone clients is undermining the effectiveness of methadone treatment programs in reducing illicit drug use, decreasing criminal behavior, and slowing the spread of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). In response, methadone programs are implementing a range of behavioral interventions to manage this growing problem. Many of these interventions, however, have yet to be evaluated for effectiveness for reducing cocaine use among methadone clients. Interventions that are effective for cocaine use in the general population may not be as effective with cocaine users in methadone programs because these clients differ from other cocaine users in ways that are likely to affect how they respond to the interventions. This paper reviews the literature on the significance and scope of the problem of cocaine use by methadone clients and on the behavioral interventions that have been evaluated for these clients.

Alcohol use in television programming: effects on children's behavior.

The impact of televised use of alcoholic beverages on children's behavior was evaluated in this study. Children were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: (a) television with drinking depicted, (b) television without drinking, or (c) a no television control condition. Segments of the syndicated television show M.A.S.H. were used as the viewing stimulus. The impact of the various conditions was evaluated in a choice task requiring subjects to choose either martini or regular glasses of either "whiskey" or "water" to serve pictured adults and children. Results indicated that subjects who viewed television drinking were significantly more likely to choose alcoholic beverages for pictured adults but not children. No effect was found for glass preference. Results and implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Prevalence and correlates of heavy smoking in Vietnam veterans with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder.

A study was conducted to investigate smoking patterns in 445 Vietnam veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Combat veterans with PTSD reported similar occurrence of smoking (53%) compared to combat veterans without PTSD (45%). For those who smoked, combat veterans with PTSD reported a significantly higher rate of heavy smoking (> or = 25 cigarettes daily): 28% of combat veterans without PTSD were heavy smokers and 48% of combat veterans with PTSD were heavy smokers. PTSD diagnosis and heavy smoking status were independently and differentially related to motives for smoking. In combat veterans with PTSD, heavy smoking status was positively related to total health complaints, lifetime health complaints, health complaints in the past year, negative health behaviors, total PTSD symptoms, DSM-IV C cluster (avoidance and numbing) and D cluster (hyperarousal) PTSD symptoms. Heavy smoking status was also associated with fewer positive health behaviors.

Measuring exposure to racism: development and validation of a Race-Related Stressor Scale (RRSS) for Asian American Vietnam veterans.

This article describes the development and validation of the Race-Related Stressor Scale (RRSS), a questionnaire that assesses exposure to race-related stressors in the military and war zone. Validated on a sample of 300 Asian American Vietnam veterans, the RRSS has high internal consistency and adequate temporal stability. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that exposure to race-related stressors accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and general psychiatric symptoms, over and above (by 20% and 19%, respectively) that accounted for by combat exposure and military rank. The RRSS appears to be a psychometrically sound measure of exposure to race-related stressors for this population. Race-related stressors as measured by the RRSS appear to contribute uniquely and substantially to PTSD symptoms and generalized psychiatric distress.