Short-term changes in social role statuses across young adulthood and their relation to heavy drinking in a given month.

Young adulthood is a developmental period during which individuals experience shifts in their social roles in various domains, which coincides with a period of time that is also high risk for lifetime peaks in alcohol use. The current study examined age-related changes in heavy episodic drinking (HED) and high-intensity drinking (HID) and associations with short-term (i.e., monthly) variation in young adults' social roles over a 2.5-year period in a community sample of young adults who reported past-year alcohol use (N = 778, baseline age range 18-23). Results showed probabilities of past-month HED and HID changed in a nonlinear fashion across ages 18-26 with greater probabilities of use at younger ages. Most participants did not report being in the same social role status every sampled month, underscoring the presence of short-term role variation. Living with parents and being in a serious romantic relationship in a given month were negatively associated with past-month HED. Living with parents in a given month was also negatively associated with past-month HID. Being a 4-year college student and being employed full-time in a given month were not significantly related to either outcome. Findings provided partial evidence that monthly statuses were associated with heavy drinking. Several avenues for future research are described in light of the findings.

Using Alcohol and Cannabis as Sleep Aids: Associations with Descriptive Norms Among College Students.

PURPOSE: Young adults may use alcohol and cannabis as sleep aids, a risky behavior that can worsen sleep health over time and lead to substance dependence. Perceived norms for such risky behaviors are often overestimated and related to one's own use. This cross-sectional study examined: (a) the extent to which college students overestimated the prevalence of alcohol and cannabis use as sleep aids (i.e., perceived descriptive norms), and (b) the extent to which perceived descriptive norms were associated with students' own use of alcohol and cannabis as sleep aids. METHODS: 2,642 undergraduate college students (Mage = 18.84 years) reported past 30-day use of alcohol and cannabis as sleep aids. Participants also estimated the percent of college students who use alcohol and cannabis as sleep aids (i.e., perceived descriptive norms). RESULTS: One-sample t-tests revealed participants, on average, overestimated the norms for using alcohol and cannabis as sleep aids. Participants who endorsed past 30-day use of these substances as sleep aids overestimated these norms to an even greater extent. Count regression models showed perceived descriptive norms were associated with students' use of alcohol and of cannabis as sleeps aids, in respective models, even when controlling for sleep difficulties. CONCLUSIONS: College students may overestimate the prevalence of using alcohol and cannabis as sleep aids, and students who believe these behaviors are more normative report more frequent use of these substances as sleep aids. Taken together, findings may highlight the potential for norm-correcting strategies as a prudent approach to reducing/preventing the use of alcohol and cannabis as sleep aids.

Exposure to Media Messages Portraying Effects of Alcohol Use in a Young Adult Sample.

Background: Young adults are prolific media users and tend to use substances, such as alcohol, more than people of other ages. Despite much research on young adults' exposure to alcohol advertisements and portrayals of alcohol use in the media, much is still unknown about the nuances of young adults' exposure to and engagement with alcohol-related media content. The present paper examined how college students' media exposure differed for messages portraying positive and negative alcohol effects, how exposure to alcohol-related content differed across media sources, which themes of alcoholrelated content were seen most, and whether exposure to alcohol-related content was associated with hazardous/harmful drinking. Method: Participants (N=500) were two- and four-year college students (Mage=20.90, SDage=1.70, 63.2% female) recruited for a longitudinal study examining the efficacy of a mobile app intervention for high-risk drinking college students. The data used here comes from the baseline survey. Results: Participants reported the greatest exposure to alcohol-related messages in movies/TV/on-demand streaming shows followed by in social media, and they reported greater exposure to messages portraying positive than negative effects of alcohol. Findings from linear regressions indicated that exposure to messages portraying positive or negative effects of alcohol generally did not predict hazardous/harmful drinking. Conclusion: This sample of high-risk college student drinkers reported seeing alcohol-related content through a variety of media sources, with most content portraying alcohol in a positive light. Future research should assess the effects that messages of different types and from different sources have on use, expectancies, norms, and other outcomes.

Behavioral Willingness, Descriptive Normative Perceptions, and Prescription Stimulant Misuse among Young Adults 18-20.

Objective: It is critical to gain further understanding of etiologic factors, such as descriptive normative perceptions and behavioral willingness, that are associated with prescription stimulant misuse (PSM) among young adults. Our primary hypotheses were that descriptive normative perceptions for PSM (i.e., perceptions of how much and how often others engage in PSM) and perceived peer willingness (i.e., perceptions of how open others are to PSM under certain circumstances) would be positively associated with higher willingness to engage in PSM, which in turn would account for significant shared variance with self-reported PSM. Method: Data were collected from a U.S. sample of 18-20-year-olds (N = 1,065; 54.5% females; 70.5% White) recruited for a larger study on alcohol-related risky sexual behavior. Results: Findings indicated higher descriptive normative perceptions and higher perceived peer willingness were associated with higher participants' willingness to engage in PSM. Participants' own willingness was positively associated with PSM. Finally, participants' own willingness to use, descriptive normative perceptions, and perceived peer willingness were associated with higher willingness to engage in PSM, which accounted for significant shared variance with self-reported PSM. Conclusions: Findings suggest the potential utility of personalized feedback interventions for PSM that focus on constructs such as descriptive normative perceptions and behavioral willingness.

Negative evaluation of role transitions is associated with perceived stress and alcohol consequences: Examination of the Transitions Overload Model in young adulthood using two years of monthly data.

BACKGROUND: Young adulthood is characterized by transitions into and out of social roles in multiple domains. Consistent with self-medication models of alcohol use, the Transitions Overload Model (J Stud Alcohol Suppl, 14, 2002, 54) hypothesizes that one cause of increased alcohol use during young adulthood may be the stress of navigating simultaneous role transitions. This study examined the simultaneous occurrence of major developmental role transitions in the domains of education, employment, romantic relationships, and residential status and their associations with perceived stress, heavy episodic drinking (HED), and negative alcohol-related consequences. Further, we extended the Transitions Overload Model to explore whether the number of transitions rated as having a negative impact on one's life was related to perceived stress, HED, and alcohol-related consequences. METHODS: A community sample of young adult drinkers (N = 767, 57% women, ages 18 to 25 years) in the Pacific Northwest provided monthly data across 2 years. Multilevel models were used to assess the average (between-person) and month-to-month (within-person) associations of role transitions with perceived stress, HED, and negative alcohol-related consequences. RESULTS: Although having more role transitions was positively associated with HED frequency and alcohol-related consequences at both the between- and within-person (monthly) levels, it was not associated with increased stress. The number of transitions rated as having a negative impact on one's life, however, was positively associated with stress. Thus, rather than the total number of transitions, it is the number of negatively perceived major developmental role transitions that is associated with perceived stress and increased risk for negative alcohol-related consequences. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to Transitions Overload Model assumptions, more transitions were not a significant predictor of more perceived stress; rather, the evaluation of the transition as negative was associated with stress and negative alcohol-related outcomes. This distinction may help elucidate the etiology of stress and subsequent alcohol consequences and identify individuals at-risk of these effects.

A Marijuana Consequences Checklist for Young Adults with Implications for Brief Motivational Intervention Research.

Measures assessing marijuana-related consequences or problems experienced by young adults have typically been adapted from measures assessing alcohol consequences. These measures may not fully reflect the specific unwanted or perceived "not so good" effects of marijuana that are experienced by young adults. Thus, using these measures may present a gap, which needs to be addressed, given that reports of consequences are often utilized in brief motivational personalized feedback interventions. Data from three different studies of young adults were used to (1) examine self-reported "not so good" effects or consequences of marijuana use among frequent marijuana-using college students (Study 1), (2) create a new version of a marijuana consequences list and compare it to an existing marijuana consequences measure (Study 2), and (3) assess convergent and divergent validity between a finalized Marijuana Consequences Checklist (MCC, 26-items) and marijuana use and risk for cannabis use disorder (Study 3). The most frequently endorsed self-reported effects of marijuana included the impact on eating (the "munchies"), dry mouth, trouble concentrating, and acting foolish or goofy. Higher scores on the MCC were associated with more frequent use and a higher probability of meeting criteria for cannabis use disorder. The MCC represents a range of negative consequences of marijuana use derived from frequent users' own accounts and includes consequences not assessed by other measures. The MCC captures marijuana-specific negative consequences relevant for young adults, which can be incorporated in brief motivational personalized feedback interventions.

Transitions Catalyst Model: Testing within- and between-Person Associations between Social Relationships and Alcohol Use, Motives, and Consequences among Young Adults.

Background: The Transitions Catalyst Model suggests increased drinking during young adulthood is due to the notion that alcohol facilitates friendships and romantic/sexual relationships during a developmental period when these relationships are highly valued. However, little research has tested the utility of this model. We examined (1) whether young adults reported greater drinking and related consequences on months when friendships were more important to them or when they were dating casually, and (2) the extent to which social drinking motives explain these associations on a given month. Methods: Data were drawn from 752 young adults (ages 18-23 at screening) living in the Seattle, WA area (56.4% female). For 24 consecutive months, surveys assessed past month alcohol use and consequences, social drinking motives, friendship importance, and dating/relationship status. Bayesian multilevel models were conducted, adjusting for time-fixed and time-varying covariates. Results: Analyses included 11,591 monthly observations. Between-persons, greater average friendship importance was associated with greater drinking. On months when participants reported greater friendship importance than their own average, they reported greater drinking and alcohol consequences. Those who reported more months of casual dating reported greater drinking and consequences on average. Relative to casual dating months, participants reported less drinking during months they were single or in a relationship and fewer consequences during months in a relationship. Associations were partially accounted for by social motives. Discussion: Findings support the Transitions Catalyst Model. Effective strategies for reducing drinking and associated risks among young adults include brief interventions focused on how social drinking motives and relationships relate to drinking decisions.

A Daily Study Comparing Alcohol-Related Positive and Negative Consequences for Days With Only Alcohol Use Versus Days With Simultaneous Alcohol and Marijuana Use in a Community Sample of Young Adults.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol and marijuana are psychoactive substances commonly used by young adults and are independently associated with numerous acute and long-term consequences. Many young adults engage in simultaneous alcohol and marijuana (SAM) use to cross-fade (i.e., to enhance the effects of intoxication), although the extent to which alcohol use and alcohol-related consequences increase on SAM occasions compared to alcohol-only occasions is unclear. This study examines daily data among a sample of SAM users comparing SAM days to other days when young adults only used alcohol. METHODS: A sample of 409 young adults (age 18 to 25; Mage  = 21.6, SD = 2.2; 50.9% women) who reported SAM use in the past month completed 2 bursts of 14 days of daily surveys (28 days in total) assessing alcohol use, alcohol-related consequences, and SAM use. RESULTS: Multilevel models based on alcohol-only and SAM days (n = 3,016 days; 391 individuals) indicated young adults drank more alcohol on SAM days compared to alcohol-only days (with no marijuana use). Similarly, days with SAM use were associated with more alcohol-related positive and negative consequences. The daily association between SAM use and positive consequences was statistically significant, after accounting for the amount of alcohol consumed; in contrast, the association between SAM use and negative consequences was diminished and nonsignificant. CONCLUSIONS: Among young adult SAM users, days with SAM use were associated with more alcohol use and positive consequences compared to days they only drank alcohol. Further examination of the motivational context for engaging in SAM use, as well as potential physiological interactions between alcohol and marijuana use on alcohol's effects, is warranted. Alcohol interventions might benefit from addressing increased alcohol use and alcohol-related consequences as risks associated with SAM use.

Evaluating Personalized Feedback Intervention Framing with a Randomized Controlled Trial to Reduce Young Adult Alcohol-Related Sexual Risk Taking.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate personalized feedback intervention (PFI) framing with two web-delivered PFIs aimed to reduce young adult alcohol-related risky sexual behavior (RSB). Combined PFIs typically use an additive approach whereby independent components on drinking and components on RSB are presented without the discussion of the influence of alcohol on RSB. In contrast, an integrated PFI highlights the RSB-alcohol connection by presenting integrated alcohol and RSB components that focus on the role of intoxication as a barrier to risk reduction in sexual situations. In a randomized controlled trial, 402 (53.98% female) sexually active young adults aged 18-25 were randomly assigned to a combined PFI, an integrated PFI, or attention control. All assessment and intervention procedures were web-based. At the 1-month follow-up, those randomly assigned to the integrated condition had a lower likelihood of having any casual sex partners compared to those in the control group. At the 6-month follow-up, the combined condition had a lower likelihood of having any casual sex partners compared to those in the control group. When examining alcohol-related RSB, at the 1-month follow-up, both interventions showed a lower likelihood of any drinking prior to sex compared to the control group. When examining alcohol-related sexual consequences, results showed a reduction in the non-zero count of consequences in the integrated condition compared to the control at the 1-month follow-up. For typical drinks per week, those in the combined condition showed a greater reduction in the non-zero count of drinks than those in the control condition at the 1-month follow-up. While there were no significant differences between the two interventions, the current findings highlight the utility of two efficacious web-based alcohol and RSB interventions among a national sample of at-risk young adults.

Daily-level Associations between Negative Mood, Perceived Stress, and College Drinking: Do Associations Differ by Sex and Fraternity/Sorority Affiliation?

BACKGROUND: Individuals experiencing elevated negative mood and stress may drink to self-medicate, yet daily-level evidence for these associations is mixed. OBJECTIVE: To clarify daily associations between negative mood and perceived stress with alcohol use among high-risk college students and test whether these associations may vary by same-day versus next-day drinking, sex, and fraternity/sorority affiliation. METHODS: Frequently drinking college students (n = 347) participated in a daily diary study, which included daily morning and evening assessments that occurred for two weeks in four consecutive academic quarters. Multilevel zero-inflated Poisson regressions were conducted to examine the effects of daily negative mood and perceived stress on same-day and next-day drinking. RESULTS: Students with higher average negative mood and perceived stress across the sampled days reported a lower likelihood of drinking. Examination of daily-level associations showed that on days students experienced elevated negative mood and perceived stress, they were less likely to drink any alcohol the same day. However, days with elevated negative mood were associated with greater alcohol use the next day. Tests of cross-level interactions indicated that four daily-level associations between higher negative mood or perceived stress and reductions in drinking were found to be significant among females and students unaffiliated with fraternity/sorority only. Conclusions/Importance: Among high-risk college drinkers, negative mood and perceived stress were associated with decreased risk of drinking, particularly among females and students unaffiliated with fraternity/sorority. Daily elevations in negative mood may lead to drinking on a subsequent day and the reason for this lagged effect warrants future research.

Descriptive and Prospective Analysis of Young Adult Alcohol Use and Romantic Relationships: Disentangling between- and within-Person Associations Using Monthly Assessments.

BACKGROUND: Prior research on romantic relationships and alcohol use among young adults has not distinguished between differences in patterns of relationship status over extended periods of time and within-person changes in status that only occur for some individuals. OBJECTIVES: This study captured between-person differences in relationship patterns, assessed associations between relationship patterns and alcohol use, and examined within-person associations between alcohol use and relationship status changes. In addition, age and sex differences in between- and within-person associations were tested. METHODS: We used multilevel modeling of monthly data collected over one year on alcohol use and romantic relationship status from a Seattle area community sample of 620 young adults (ages 18-24). RESULTS: Participants were coded into six relationship pattern groups: (1) single-not-dating (16%), (2) stable-in-a-relationship (30%), (3) single-dating (10%), (4) ended-a-relationship (14%), (5) started-a-relationship (13%), and (6) ended-and-started-a-relationship (18%). Single-not-dating and stable-in-a-relationship groups reported the least drinking across the entire year; the single-dating, ended-a-relationship, and ended-and-started-a-relationship groups reported higher levels of drinking. Examining within-person changes in groups 3-6 revealed increases in drinking associated with months of dating among the single-dating group, months postbreakup among the ended-a-relationship group, and months of breaking up and starting a new relationship among the ended-and-started-a-relationship group. Few differences by age or sex were found for between- or within-person associations. CONCLUSIONS: The findings point to heterogeneity in patterns of relationship status over time, differences in relationship patterns associated with variations in drinking, and particular time points of elevated risk for young adults who experience changes in status.

Local Support for Alcohol Control Policies and Perceptions of Neighborhood Issues in Two College Communities.

BACKGROUND: Although valuable, national opinion surveys on alcohol policy may be less informative for policy development at the local level. Using samples of adult residents in 2 college communities, the present study: (1) measured public support for local alcohol control policies to stem underage drinking and alcohol overservice in on-premise outlets, (2) assessed residents' opinions regarding neighborhood problems, and (3) identified factors associated with strong policy support. METHODS: We administered random-sample telephone surveys to residents aged 21 years and older in college communities located in Community 1 (N = 501; mean age = 57.4 years, SD = 14.7) and Community 2 (N = 505; mean age = 56.0 years, SD = 15.2). The response rates were typical of telephone surveys (Community 1: 33.5%; Community 2: 29.9%). We assessed support for 16 alcohol control policies and the occurrence of specific types of neighborhood incidents (e.g., witnessing intoxicated people). We used multiple regression analyses to determine factors associated with policy support. RESULTS: Residents in Community 1 reported significantly higher weekly alcohol use, a greater number of witnessed neighborhood incidents, and a higher level of perceived neighborhood problems than did residents in Community 2. Residents in Community 1 perceived local alcohol control policies and their enforcement to be significantly stricter. Overall, policy support was high and did not differ between the communities. In both communities, higher policy support was significantly associated with being female, being older, less weekly alcohol use, and lower perceived strictness of alcohol control policies and enforcement. CONCLUSIONS: It is important for campus officials and community leaders to be aware of and publicize favorable public opinion when advocating for policy change, especially at the local level. Information on residents' perceptions of the neighborhood issues they face can also inform local policy and enforcement efforts.

Exposure to media with alcohol-related content across young adulthood: Associations with risky drinking and consequences among high-risk 2- and 4-year college students.

INTRODUCTION: Exposure to media with alcohol-related content is a known risk for alcohol use and related harms among young people. The present study used longitudinal self-report data on exposure to media with alcohol-related content to examine age trajectories across young adulthood and to estimate associations with heavy episodic drinking (HED) and negative consequences. METHOD: Participants were 201 high-risk young adults enrolled in 2- and 4-year colleges (ages 18-25 at screening; 63.7% female). Repeated assessments occurred at four timepoints across a 12-month period. RESULTS: Self-reported exposure to both positively and negatively portrayed alcohol-related media content decreased with age. Between-persons, controlling for alcohol use frequency, exposure to positive alcohol-related media content was positively associated with HED, and exposure to negative alcohol-related media content was inversely associated with HED; no within-person effects on HED were significant. For negative consequences, controlling for alcohol quantity, exposure to positive media content was associated with more negative consequences both between- and within-persons. Unexpectedly, exposure to negatively portrayed media content was positively associated with negative consequences at the within-person level. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Trajectories in exposure to media with alcohol-related content showed that relatively younger participants reported greater exposure, highlighting the need for policy and prevention efforts to protect this vulnerable demographic. Findings generally indicated that positive portrayals of alcohol use increase alcohol-related risks. Moreover, increased exposure to negative portrayals in a given assessment was associated with more negative consequences-potentially by normalising or glorifying high-risk drinking and consequences, though mechanistic/causal research is needed.

An Expanded Daily Alcohol Expectancies Measure: Results on the Multilevel Factor Structure and Psychometric Properties.

OBJECTIVE: Alcohol expectancies are beliefs people have about the likelihood of experiencing various positive or negative consequences related to alcohol use. Expectancies have most commonly been treated as trait-like characteristics of individuals, but some researchers have assessed expectancies as state-level characteristics that vary within-persons across days. Previous work developed a 13-item daily alcohol expectancies measure. This study evaluated an expanded version of that measure that includes 10 additional expectancy items. METHOD: Participants were 2- and 4-year college students (N=201; 63.7% female; 55.2% White Non-Hispanic; 75.1% 4-year students) randomized to the control group of a longitudinal study designed to test the efficacy of a just-in-time adaptive intervention delivered via mobile app to reduce high-risk alcohol use. Multilevel exploratory factor analysis was used to determine the factor structure at the daily and person levels. Multilevel models were used to evaluate the convergent validity of the resulting subscales. RESULTS: Two factors, broadly representing positive and negative alcohol expectancies, were retained at the daily and person levels. Composite reliability (ω) estimates ranged from 0.85 to 0.96 and suggested that the reliability of the resulting subscales was good to strong. Associations between the daily expectancy subscales and baseline scores on an established expectancies measure provided preliminary evidence of convergent validity. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that this expanded 23-item daily alcohol expectancies measure is psychometrically sound. This measure is appropriate for use in daily or just-in-time expectancy challenge interventions and is suitable for use among 2- and 4-year college students who drink alcohol regularly and occasionally in heavy quantities and who experience alcohol-related negative consequences.

Examining whether young adults differ in their endorsement and subjective evaluation of alcohol consequences by age, drinking frequency, and current undergraduate status.

OBJECTIVE: There is considerable variability in how young adults (YAs) perceive drinking-related consequences, and some researcher-identified "negative" consequences are viewed by YAs as neutral or even somewhat positive. Little is known about individual difference factors that may influence subjective evaluations of alcohol consequences. METHOD: We tested whether endorsement and subjective evaluation ('extremely negative' to 'extremely positive') of 24 alcohol-related "negative" consequences differed by age (18-20, 21-27), past 3-month drinking frequency (3x/month or less, weekly or more), and current undergraduate status (4-year undergraduate, non-student). YAs were recruited for a longitudinal ecological momentary assessment study on cognitions and alcohol use. Participants in the analytic sample (N=640; 48.1% White non-Hispanic/Latinx, 50.0% female, mean age=22.2 years, SD=2.3) reported past 3-month drinking. Past 3-month drinking frequency, negative consequences (total and item-level), and subjective evaluations of consequences were assessed cross-sectionally. RESULTS: Compared to YAs 18-20, YAs 21+ experienced fewer total consequences, were significantly less likely to endorse experiencing physical/behavioral consequences, and rated these consequences more negatively if they were endorsed. YAs who drank weekly or more reported experiencing more consequences and were significantly more likely to experience all 24 consequences in comparison to YAs who drank 3x/month or less. Subjective evaluation ratings did not significantly differ by drinking frequency. There were few differences between 4-year undergraduate and non-undergraduates; non-undergraduates rated several health/responsibility-related consequences more negatively. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the importance of identifying individual difference factors that contribute to subjective evaluation ratings, and may be useful for tailoring brief, personalized alcohol interventions for YAs.

Simultaneous use of alcohol and cannabis and attenuated age-related declines in alcohol and cannabis use disorder symptoms across young adulthood.

Most young adults naturally mature out of high-risk substance use patterns, but it is important to identify factors that may impede normative declines. Use of alcohol and cannabis simultaneously (i.e., simultaneous alcohol and marijuana/cannabis [SAM]) is cross-sectionally associated with alcohol and cannabis concerns, and SAM use increases acute risks at the daily level. However, less is known about long-term risks of SAM use and, specifically, how SAM use relates to maturing out of alcohol and cannabis use. Using four consecutive years of survey data from young adults who reported SAM use (N=409; 1636 responses; aged 18-25 at baseline), we first estimated age-related changes in symptoms of alcohol and cannabis use disorder (AUD/CUD) using multilevel growth modeling. Findings supported a maturing out process, as both AUD and CUD symptom severity significantly declined across young adulthood, on average (4 % and 5 % per year respectively, with significant acceleration). Cross-level interactions tested whether participants' mean SAM use frequency across all four timepoints moderated age-related trajectories in AUD/CUD symptom severity. Significant interactions indicated that, relative to less-frequent SAM use, participants with more frequent SAM use showed less steep declines in AUD (1 % decrease per year vs. 6 % per year) and CUD symptoms (0 % decrease per year vs. 7 % per year); thus, SAM frequency was associated with slower/delayed maturing out of hazardous alcohol and cannabis use. Findings highlight that SAM use may be a correlate or risk-factor for prolonged high-risk substance use during young adulthood that relates to deviations from maturing out processes.

Changes in Cannabis Use From 2014 to 2019 Among Young Adults in Washington State.

INTRODUCTION: Understanding changes in cannabis use in the legalized nonmedical cannabis context is critical. Washington State, one the earliest states to implement legalization, presents a unique opportunity to examine how cannabis use and its consequences changed after the implementation of legalization for adults. With a focus on Washington State young adults, this study conducted in 2022-2023 examined changes in (1) cannabis use by sex and age, (2) preferred mode of use, and (3) cannabis use disorder symptoms. METHODS: Using repeated cross-sectional data on young adults aged 18-25 years in Washington State from 2014 (premarket opening) to 2019 (N=12,945), logistic regression models assessed trends over time in the prevalence of any and frequent (20+ days) past-month cannabis use. Among individuals reporting use, multinomial logistic regressions estimated trends over time in the preferred mode of use and negative binomial regressions examined trends in the count of cannabis use disorder symptoms. RESULTS: From 2014 to 2019, the prevalence of cannabis use converged by sex, with females being equally likely as males to report both any and frequent use by 2019. Among young adults reporting past-month use, smoking as the preferred mode of use decreased relative to other modes. Number of cannabis use disorder symptoms reported increased, which was not accounted for by changes in preferred mode of use. CONCLUSIONS: During the 5-year period following the implementation of legalization, patterns of young adult cannabis use shifted, including particularly sharp increases among females and increases in cannabis use disorder symptoms. Future studies should investigate underlying causes for these important changes.

Daily-Level Associations between Situational Familiarity with Location and People and Use of Alcohol-related Protective Behavioral Strategy Among Adolescents and Young Adults.

OBJECTIVE: Despite protective behavioral strategies (PBS) being an important part of alcohol prevention programs, utilization of PBS is sub-optimal, and research is needed to determine factors associated with use and non-use of PBS. The present study examined daily-level associations between situational familiarity (i.e., familiarity with locations and people) and the use of alcohol-related PBS among adolescents and young adults. METHOD: Participants (analysis N = 564, 55.1% females, 45.2% White, Non-Hispanic, ages 15 to 25, mean = 21.07 years [SD = 2.79]) were part of a longitudinal ecological momentary assessment burst study on cognitions and alcohol use. Mixed effects Poisson models were used to analyze data for engagement in PBS (i.e., serious harm reduction, stopping/limiting, and manner of drinking PBS). RESULTS: Within-person results indicated when participants had elevated (i.e., higher than their own average) familiarity with their location, they were less likely to use serious harm reduction PBS (Rate ratio [RR] = 0.94, p < 0.001) and stopping/limiting PBS (RR = 0.95, p < 0.001). Results showed that on drinking days with elevated familiarity with people, individuals were more likely to use serious harm reduction PBS (RR = 1.03, p = 0.01). There were no significant daily-level associations between familiarity with people or location and manner of drinking PBS. CONCLUSION: The study suggests PBS use, particularly for serious harm reduction and stopping/limiting strategies, varies among adolescents and young adults based on familiarity with location and people. Alcohol prevention interventions, including just-in-time interventions, should consider how to promote PBS use particularly in familiar locations and with less familiar people.

Age-related Changes in Past-Month Alcohol, Cannabis, and Simultaneous Use in a Statewide Sample of Young Adults in Washington State.

OBJECTIVE: It is unknown whether age-related decreases in substance use (maturing out) are observed in the legalized cannabis context. This study evaluated age-related changes in past-month alcohol use frequency, cannabis use frequency, and any simultaneous alcohol and marijuana/cannabis (SAM) use among young adults who engaged in the respective substance use behavior. METHOD: Young adults, residing in Washington State at enrollment (N=6,509; 68.3% female; ages 18-25), provided 3-5 years of annual data in a longitudinal, cohort-sequential design from 2015 to 2019, a period after nonmedical cannabis was legalized and implemented. Multilevel growth models were conducted; post-stratification weights were applied to make the sample more similar to the Washington young adult general population in demographic characteristics. RESULTS: Among those who reported alcohol use at 1+ timepoints, days of alcohol use increased from age 18 to approximately age 25 and then decreased until age 30. Among those who reported cannabis use at 1+ timepoints, days of cannabis use increased from age 18 until approximately age 23 and then decreased until age 30. Among those who reported SAM use at 1+ timepoints, the probability of SAM use increased from age 18 until approximately age 24 and then decreased until age 30. Age-related changes in SAM use were largely explained by concurrent changes in alcohol and cannabis use frequency. CONCLUSIONS: Maturing out was observed for alcohol, cannabis, and SAM use among those who used each respective substance, with evidence that age-related changes in SAM use were tied to alcohol and cannabis use frequency.

A daily-level examination of willingness to pregame, blackout, and hook up across drinking days: Associations with respective behavioral outcomes among adolescents and young adults.

Research indicates general willingness to drink (i.e., "How willing are you to drink tonight?") fluctuates day-to-day and is associated with daily-level drinking. However, it is unknown whether willingness to engage in specific alcohol-related behaviors is associated with actual engagement in those behaviors above and beyond general willingness to drink at the daily level. The present study examined whether daily-level willingness to engage in specific behaviors (i.e., pre-gaming, blacking out, hooking up) predicted engaging in those respective behaviors on drinking days above and beyond one's general willingness to drink. Participants included adolescents and young adults who were part of a longitudinal ecological momentary assessment (EMA) study on cognitions and alcohol use. Participants (N = 675; 43 % male) who reported drinking on weekend days (i.e., Friday and Saturday [N = 3,727 days]), were included. The study involved a 3-week EMA burst design with bursts occurring quarterly over 12 months. Multilevel logistic regressions indicated on drinking days when participants reported being more willing than their own average to pre-game (OR = 1.77, p <.001), black out (OR = 1.46, p <.05), or drink before hooking up (OR = 1.68, p <.001), they were more likely to pregame, black out, and hook up, respectively, whereas general willingness to drink was not associated with any outcomes at the daily level.Results suggest willingness to engage in specific behaviors may be essential to target in prevention programming in comparison to general willingness to drink when aiming to reduce specific risk behaviors.