Artisanal mining of monazite and cassiterite in the Amazon: Potential risks of rare earth elements for the environment and human health.

Artisanal mining is intensely carried out in developing countries, including Brazil and especially in the Amazon. This method of mineral exploration generally does not employ mitigation techniques for potential damages and can lead to various environmental problems and risks to human health. The objectives of this study were to quantify the concentrations of rare earth elements (REEs) and estimate the environmental and human health risks in cassiterite and monazite artisanal mining areas in the southeastern Amazon, as well as to understand the dynamics of this risk over time after exploitation. A total of 35 samples of wastes classified as overburden and tailings in active areas, as well as in areas deactivated for one and ten years were collected. Samples were also collected in a forest area considered as a reference site. The concentrations of REEs were quantified using alkaline fusion and ICP-MS. The results were used to calculate pollution indices and environmental and human health risks. REEs showed higher concentrations in anthropized areas. Pollution and environmental risk levels were higher in areas deactivated for one year, with considerable contamination factors for Gd and Sm and significant to extreme enrichment factors for Sc. Human health risks were low (< 1) in all studied areas. The results indicate that artisanal mining of cassiterite and monazite has the potential to promote contamination and enrichment by REEs.

Environmental and agronomic assessment of soil conditioners produced from bauxite residue and oil palm wastes.

Soil conditioner is class of products used to enhance physics, physicochemical or soil biological activities, being able to recover disturbed or nutritional unbalanced soils. The formulation of a soil conditioner composed by bauxite residue (BR), and organic oil palm wastes, as raw materials, was recently proposed as an innovative strategy for the Brazilian acid soils amendment. Here we show the results of soil conditioner amended soil leaching tests and agronomical performance. The soil conditioners were formulated by BR mixed with decomposed POC (palm oil compost) and non-decomposed POMW (palm oil mill waste) oil palm wastes, in the proportion of 25% BR + 75% POC (T1) and 50% BR + 50% POMW (T2), in addition to the treatment with 100% POMW without BR (T3) and limestone at a dose calculated to raise soil pH to 6.0 (T4). Except for T4, all conditioners were applied to the soil at doses of 40, 80, and 120 t ha-1 for leaching tests. The experimental plots were composed of polyvinyl chloride columns, filled with 5 kg of soil, with bottles adapted with hoses at the bottom to facilitate drainage of the leachate. After leaching tests, the respective columns were used as pots for the cultivation of Brachiaria grass, stage with addition of a control composed by undisturbed soil (T5). The pH of the leachates had changes, but the use of BR associated with POMW was similar to the use of limestone. Of the 65 chemical elements evaluated, only nine were identified in the leachate, being most of them considered as plant nutrients. As for soil pH, limestone was slightly higher (6.6) than treatments that had BR (5.5). Brachiaria grass cultivated in the soil amended with conditioners showed similar results of limestone treated soil for the parameters of plant development and showed fertility improvement.

Levels and environmental risks of rare earth elements in a gold mining area in the Amazon.

Artisanal gold (Au) mining may have increased the concentrations of rare earth elements (REEs) in the Serra Pelada mine (southeastern Amazon, Brazil), which has not been evaluated so far. The objectives of this study were to determine the concentrations of cerium (Ce), lanthanum (La), scandium (Sc), and yttrium (Y) in the surroundings of the Serra Pelada mine, as well as the environmental risks associated with these elements. Therefore, 27 samples were collected in agricultural, forest, mining, and urban areas, and submitted to chemical and particle size characterization. The concentrations of REEs were quantified by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and used to estimate pollution indices and environmental risks of the studied elements. All REEs had higher levels in the anthropized areas when compared to the forest area, except Sc in the mining and urban areas. Pollution load indices revealed that all areas are contaminated (>1) by the combined effect of REEs, especially the agricultural areas (index of 2.3). The element of greatest enrichment in the studied areas was Y, with enrichment factors of 18.2, 39.0, and 44.4 in the urban, agriculture, and mining areas, respectively. However, the potential ecological risk indices were low (<150) in all areas, indicating that there are no current environmental risks by the studied REEs.

Bioaccumulation and human health risks of potentially toxic elements in fish species from the southeastern Carajás Mineral Province, Brazil.

Anthropogenic activities may have increased the concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in fish from the southeastern Carajás Mineral Province in Brazil, which has not yet been studied. The objectives were to determine the quality parameters of surface water and bottom sediments, and to assess the bioaccumulation and risks of Al, Fe, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Ti, V and Zn in fish species from the southeastern Carajás Mineral Province. Water, sediments and fish species (Colossoma macropomum, Curimata cyprinoides, Geophagus sp., Leporinus trifasciatus, and Serrasalmus eigenmanni) were collected in 14 areas in the municipalities of Parauapebas, Marabá and Canaã dos Carajás, contemplating the Gelado Stream and the Parauapebas, Tapirapé and Itacaiúnas Rivers. Water samples were subjected to physicochemical analysis using a multiparameter meter. Concentrations of PTEs in all samples were quantified by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry. Enrichment factor (EF) and geoaccumulation index (Igeo) were calculated to study the sediment enrichment and contamination. Ecological and human health risk assessments were performed to determine the risks to the environment and population's health. EF and Igeo revealed that the sediments from the Parauapebas River and Gelado Stream are respectively enriched by Ba, Co, Cu, Cr, Mn, Pb, and Ba, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb and V. The concentrations of Fe (1.67 mg L-1) and Mn (0.11 mg L-1) in water and the concentrations of Cr (>0.1 mg kg-1) and Pb (>2 mg kg-1) in fish were above the Brazilian legislation thresholds. The ecological risk assessment revealed considerable risk from Ni and moderate risk from multiple PTEs in sediments from the Gelado Stream. Human health risks were detected for Pb in all fish species and for Mo in L.trifasciatus. These results indicate that techniques for monitoring and controlling contamination must be implemented by the environmental agencies.

Biochar mitigates bioavailability and environmental risks of arsenic in gold mining tailings from the eastern Amazon.

Artisanal gold mining has generated tailings highly contaminated by arsenic (As) in Cachoeira do Piriá, eastern Amazon, leading to severe risks to the environment. Such risks should be mitigated considering the bioavailable concentration of the element, since it implies immediate damage to the ecosystem. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of biochars in mitigating the environmental risks of bioavailable As concentrations in gold mining tailings from underground and cyanidation exploration. The biochar addition increased mineral components, cation retention, phosphorus in all fractions, and organic and inorganic carbon. The bioavailability of As was reduced after adding the biochars, following the order palm kernel cake biochar > Brazil nut shell biochar > açaí seed biochar, with reductions of up to 13 mg kg-1 in the underground mining tailings and 17 mg kg-1 in the cyanidation mining tailings. These results contributed to the statistically significant reduction of the environmental risks in both mining tailings (6-17% in the underground mining tailings and 9-20% in the cyanidation mining tailings), which was emphasized by Pearson's correlation and multivariate analyzes. The incorporation of the bioavailable fractions of As (from sequential extraction) in the environmental risk assessment was a promising method for evaluating the efficiency of biochars in mitigating the damage caused by this metalloid in gold mining tailings.

Copper mining in the eastern Amazon: an environmental perspective on potentially toxic elements.

Mining activity is of great economic and social importance; however, volumes of metallic ore tailings rich in potentially toxic elements (PTEs) may be produced. In this context, managing this environmental liability and assessing soil quality in areas close to mining activities are fundamental. This study aimed to compare the concentrations of PTEs-arsenic (As), barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn)-as well as the fertility and texture of Cu tailings and soils of native, urban and pasture areas surrounding a Cu mining complex in the eastern Amazon. The levels of PTEs were compared with soil prevention values, soil quality reference values, global average soil concentrations and average upper continental crust concentrations. The contamination factor (CF), degree of contamination (Cdeg), potential ecological risk index (RI), geoaccumulation index (Igeo) and pollution load index (PLI) were calculated. The levels of Co, Cu and Ni in the tailings area exceeded the prevention values, soil quality reference values and average upper continental crust concentrations; however, the tailings area was considered unpolluted according to PLI and RI and presented a low potential ecological risk. The high concentrations of PTEs are associated with the geological properties of the area, and the presence of PTEs-rich minerals supports these results. For the urban and pasture areas, none of the 11 PTEs analyzed exceeded the prevention values established by the Brazilian National Environment Council.

Chemical fractionation and bioaccessibility of potentially toxic elements in area of artisanal gold mining in the Amazon.

Artisanal mining may have modified the mobility, bioavailability and bioaccessibility of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in the Serra Pelada gold mine, eastern Amazon, Brazil, which has not yet been studied. The objectives were to perform chemical fractionation of barium (Ba), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn), and to determine the bioaccessibility of these elements in soils and mining wastes collected in agriculture, forest, mining, and urban areas from the influence zone of the Serra Pelada gold mine. Pseudo total concentrations were obtained by acid digestion, chemical fractionation was performed using the Bureau Community of Reference (BCR) sequential extraction, oral bioaccessibility was obtained by the Simple Bioaccessibility Extraction Test (SBET) and lung bioaccessibility was obtained through Gamble's solution. The pseudo total concentrations indicated contamination by Ba, Cu and Ni. The sequential extraction revealed the predominance of all elements in the residual fraction. However, Ba is in high concentrations in the greater mobility forms, ranging from 166.36 to 1379.58 mg kg-1. Regardless of the area, Cr and Cu are more oral bioaccessible in the intestinal phase, and Zn in the gastric phase. Ba, Cr and Zn are not lung bioaccessible, while Cu, Ni and Pb are bioaccessible via inhalation. The PTEs studied deserve attention not only due to the high pseudo total concentrations found (which indicate potential risk), but also the concentrations in high mobility forms and bioaccessible fractions, especially in the areas of greatest anthropogenic occupation.

Phytoremediation potential of Khaya ivorensis and Cedrela fissilis in copper contaminated soil.

Mineral exploration of copper (Cu) in the Amazon has significantly impacted the environment, leading to contamination of large areas that require remediation. Tropical tree species that can immobilize metals and restore plant cover should be selected for phytoremediation programs. The phytoremediation behavior of Khaya ivorensis and Cedrela fissilis was studied in Cu contaminated soil (60, 200, 400, and 600 mg kg-1). K. ivorensis absorbed extremely high amounts of Cu in the roots (329 mg kg-1) and excessive amounts in the shoot (52 mg kg-1), while maintaining similar growth to control plants. C. fissilis seedlings presented a higher Dickson quality index. Bioaccumulation (BCF) and translocation (TF) factors were low in both species, indicating that even with the high amounts of copper absorbed, these contents were lower than the soil concentration (BCF < 1) and that most of Cu was compartmentalized in the roots (TF < 1). The tolerance index of K. ivorensis (>1) and C. fissilis (~1) indicate their ability to grow in Cu contaminated soil. These results suggest that these species could potentially be used as phytoremediators.

Phosphorus lability increases with the rehabilitation advance of iron mine land in the eastern Amazon.

Impacted areas by iron mining may face challenges in the management of phosphate fertilization and reduced efficiency of rehabilitation practices, thus extending the time required for the rehabilitation of these areas. The objective of this study was to evaluate phosphorus (P) lability in soils of native forest and ferriferous canga areas (savanna vegetation above ironstone outcrops covering iron ore deposits) and in iron mine waste piles undergoing rehabilitation. Benches of the analysed waste pile differ in age of rehabilitation: as the initial rehabilitation stage (INI), we consider benches with fewer than 3 years of rehabilitation; the intermediate stage (INT) were benches with up to 5 years of rehabilitation; and the advanced rehabilitation stage (ADV) corresponds to benches with more than 8 years of rehabilitation activities. Organic and inorganic P fractions were analysed in these areas by chemical fractionation and were classified according to the degree of soil lability. The results show that in the canga environment, there was a predominance of inorganic fractions of moderate lability and moderate stability, with a strong dependency of the soil organic matter (SOM) on the P fractions, whereas there was a greater participation of the moderately labile organic fractions in the forest than in the canga. On the other hand, in the rehabilitation areas, there was an increase in the labile organic and inorganic fractions as the rehabilitation process advanced. The distribution of P in areas undergoing rehabilitation indicates that there is a tendency for P levels to resemble those of native environments, such as the forests.

Geochemical background concentrations of potentially toxic elements in soils of the Carajás Mineral Province, southeast of the Amazonian Craton.

The objective of this study was to establish background concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in soils from the Carajás Mineral Province (CMP), southeastern Amazonian Craton. The PTEs Al, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Ti, V, and Zn were digested in microwaves and quantified by optical emission spectrometry (ICP OES). The variability of physical-chemical and mineralogical attributes contributed to variation in PTE concentrations. High background concentrations of Al, Fe, Cr, Mn, Mo, Ni, Ti, and V and, in particular, the PTE concentrations of Cd, Cu, Cr, Ba, and Co were greater than the prevention values defined by the Brazilian National Council of Environment. Soil quality reference values (QRVs) were greater than those determined for most Brazilian states and soils in the state of Pará. The high background concentrations and QRVs of PTEs show that the region is strongly influenced by the source material, rich in ferruginous deposits and other associated minerals. The results are an important tool for establishing soil quality standards and public policies for environmental protection in regions naturally PTE enriched.

Organic residues and biochar to immobilize potentially toxic elements in soil from a gold mine in the Amazon.

Waste from gold mining (Au) is a threat to the ecosystem and human health because it contains high levels of potentially toxic elements (PTEs). Organic waste and biochar can be used to recover contaminated soils from mining areas because they have the potential to immobilize PTEs and improve soil fertility, enabling revegetation. The objective of this study was to investigate the efficiency with which organic residues and biochar immobilize PTEs in a multicontaminated soil of a small-scale Au mine in the state of Pará. The soil from a gold mining area was mixed with different proportions (v/v) of coffee ground residues (Bcoffee), Brazil nut tegument residues (BN), açai palm stone residues (A), and Brazil nuts biochar residues to determine which treatment is best for immobilizing PTEs. The treatments with the addition of BN and A resulted in low pH and high contents of organic matter (OM) and phosphor (P) The BN increased the available levels of Ba and reduced the available levels of Ni. The addition of coffee ground residues and biochar increased the uptake of Ba, Pb, and Ni in lettuce plants compared to treatments with BN and A. Plants grown with A showed higher dry matter yield and lower absorption and translocation of PTEs. Thus, the addition of BN and A residues in PTE phytostabilization programs in PTE-multicontaminated soils is a potential possibility.

Potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in soils from the surroundings of the Trans-Amazonian Highway, Brazil.

The Trans-Amazonian Highway (TAH) is located in the northern region of Brazil, comprising a border region where agricultural, mining, and logging activities are the main activities responsible for fostering economic development, in addition to large hydroelectric plants. Such activities lead to environmental contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs). Environmental monitoring is only possible through the determination of element contents under natural conditions. Many extraction methods have been proposed to determine PTEs' bioavailability in the soil; however, there is no consensus about which extractor is most suitable. In this study, we determined the contents of PTEs in soils in the surroundings of TAH after mineral extraction with diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid-triethanolamine (DTPA-TEA), Mehlich I, and Mehlich III solutions. Soil samples were collected in areas of natural vegetation in the vicinity of TAH in the state of Pará, Brazil. Chemical attributes and particle size were determined, besides concentrations of Fe, Al, Mn, and Ti by sulfuric acid digestion, Si after alkaline solution attack, and poorly crystalline Fe, Al, and "free" Fe oxides. Mehlich III solution extracted greater contents from Fe, Al, and Pb as compared to Mehlich I and DTPA-TEA and similar contents from Cd, Mn, Zn, and Cu. Significant correlations were found between concentrations of PTEs and the contents of Fe and Mn oxides as well as organic carbon and soil cation exchange capacity. Contents of Cu, Mn, Fe, and Zn by the three methods were positively correlated.

Prediction of the distribution coefficients of metals in Amazonian soils.

Soil pollution with metals alters ecosystem structure and function, as well as poses risks to human health. In this study the distribution coefficients (Kd) were determined for Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn in 21 soils from eastern Amazonian via Freundlich adsorption isotherm. The stepwise multiple regression models were used to estimate the Kd values through the combined effect of soil attributes. Multiple regressions showed that Kd values were strongly correlated with the soil pH, CEC and Fe oxide contents. A close association between Kd of metals and soil properties was observed using three principal components (PCA) and Pearson's correlation. In the principal components analysis showed that concentration of metals was related to pH, Fe and Mn oxides contents, which in combination explained 90 percent of the variation. This probably happens because of greater affinity of those metals to Fe and Mn oxides formed predominantly under tropical conditions.

Human and environmental exposure to rare earth elements in gold mining areas in the northeastern Amazon.

Rudimentary methods are used to exploit gold (Au) in several artisanal mines in the Amazon, producing hazardous wastes that may pose risks of contamination by rare earth elements (REEs). The objectives of this study were to quantify the concentrations of REEs and assess their environmental and human health risks in artisanal Au mining areas in the northeastern Amazon. Thus, 25 samples of soils and mining wastes were collected in underground, colluvial, and cyanidation exploration sites, as well as in a natural forest that was considered as a reference area. The concentrations of REEs were quantified using alkaline fusion and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and the results were used to estimate pollution indices and risks associated with the contaminants. All REEs showed higher concentrations in waste deposition areas than in the reference area, especially Ce, Sc, Nd, La, Pr, Sm, and Eu. Pollution and enrichment levels were higher in the underground and cyanidation mining areas, with very high contamination factors (6.2-27) for Ce, Eu, La, Nd, Pr, Sm, and Sc, and significant to very high enrichment factors (5.5-20) for Ce, La, Nd, Pr, and Sc. The ecological risk indices varied from moderate (167.3) to high (365.7) in the most polluted sites, but risks to human health were low in all areas studied. The results of this study indicate that artisanal Au mining has the potential to cause contamination, enrichment, and ecological risks by REEs in the northeastern Amazon. Mitigation measures should be implemented to protect the environment from the negative impacts of these contaminants.

Impact of copper mining wastes in the Amazon: Properties and risks to environment and human health.

Improper disposal of copper mining wastes can threaten the ecosystem and human health due to the high levels of potentially toxic elements released into the environment. The objective of this study was to determine the properties of Cu mining wastes generated in the eastern Amazon and their potential risks to environment and human health. Samples of forest soil and artisanal/industrial Cu mining wastes were collected and subjected to characterization of properties and pseudo-total concentrations of Al, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, and Zn, in addition to chemical fractionation of Cu. The pH ranged from near neutrality to alkaline. Pseudo-total concentrations of Cu were high in all wastes, mainly in the artisanal rock waste, with 19,034 mg kg-1, of which 61% is concentrated in the most reactive fractions. Pollution indices indicated that the wastes are highly contaminated by Cu and moderately contaminated by Cr and Ni. However, only the artisanal rock waste is associated with environmental risk. Non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic human health risks were detected, especially from exposure to Cr in the artisanal rock waste. Prevention actions and monitoring of the artisanal mining area are necessary to avoid impacts to the local population.

Bauxite residue valorization - Soil conditioners production through composting with palm oil mill residual biomass.

Bauxite residue (BR) is a by-product of Bayer process, which is applied for alumina production. Due to its inherent alkalinity and sodicity, the use of BR is globally limited to 23% of the 150 million tons (Mt) produced annually. Maximizing alternative and large-scale uses of BR is a game changer to promote the sustainability of the aluminum production chain. As a strategy for BR valorization, a soil conditioner composed of BR and palm oil residual biomass was proposed. Here we evaluate the BR (25%, 50% and 75%) batch composting with raw palm oil mill waste (POMW) and palm oil compost (POC). The pH, EC, total N and organic carbon, C:N ratio, water holding capacity (WHC), cation exchange capacity (CEC), granulometry and elemental composition were determined after 90 days of composting. Changes in temperature, pH and EC curves were observed during composting of soil conditioners for 90 days. Composting reduced the alkalinity and sodicity of BR, increasing CEC, moisture, organic carbon and total nitrogen. The formulation containing 25% of BR and 75% of POC showed WHC ≥ 60% and CEC ≥ 200 mmolc·kg-1, meeting the Brazilian legislation for production and commercialization of soil conditioners. This strategy could potentially consume 7.6% of all BR produced annually in the largest Brazilian alumina refinery. Concentrations of potentially toxic elements were far below the allowable levels in all formulations. Major and minor plant nutrients were present and the composting aggregated small particles in BR. Composting of BR is a new alternative for the valorization of mining tailings, allowing the development of an environmentally friendly and zero-waste product, which can be applied on a large scale in agriculture to improve soil fertility.

Artisanal gold mining in the eastern Amazon: Environmental and human health risks of mercury from different mining methods.

Artisanal gold (Au) mining is the activity with the highest consumption of mercury (Hg) and the main source of environmental contamination by this element, which is a recurring problem in the Amazon. In this study, contamination and risks caused by Hg to the environment and human health were evaluated in different forms of artisanal Au mining in the Brazilian Amazon. For this purpose, 25 samples of soils and tailings were collected in three types of artisanal mine and one native forest. The mineralogical analysis revealed that there is no occurrence of minerals constituted by Hg. However, the concentrations of Hg in underground mining tailings were very high and exceeded the prevention values established by Brazilian environmental legislation, indicating elevated risk to the ecosystem and human health. The enrichment factor indicated that underground mining tailings are enriched by Hg, submitted to cyanidation or not, suggesting anthropogenic source for the high concentrations of Hg. The geoaccumulation index and the contamination factor showed that the colluvial mining tailings are moderately contaminated, and the tailings from underground mining are highly to extremely contaminated, leading to very high risks to the environment and the health of children from the region. These results represent a great contribution to the Amazon, since they provide subsidies for the definition of policies to mitigate environmental contamination and associated risks.

Environmental and human health risks of arsenic in gold mining areas in the eastern Amazon.

Knowledge of arsenic (As) levels in gold (Au) mining areas in the Amazon is critical for determining environmental risks and the health of the local population, mainly because this region has the largest mineral potential in Brazil and one of the largest in the world. The objective of this study was to assess the environmental and human health risks of As in tailings from Au exploration in the eastern Amazon. Samples were collected from soils and tailings from different exploration forms from 25 points, and the total concentration, pollution indexes and human health risk were determined. Concentrations of As were very high in all exploration areas, especially in tailings, whose maximum value reached 10,000 mg kg-1, far above the investigation value established by the Brazilian National Council of the Environment, characterizing a polluted area with high environmental risk. Exposure based on the daily intake of As demonstrated a high health risk for children and adults, whose non-carcinogenic risk indexes of 17.8, extremely above the acceptable limit (1.0) established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. High levels of As in reactive fractions in underground, cyanidation, and colluvium mining areas, as well as extremely high gastric and intestinal bioaccessibility were found, suggesting that high levels may be absorbed by the local population. The results show that the study area is highly polluted through Au mining activities, putting the environment and population health at risk, and that there is an urgent need for intervention by the environmental control agencies for remediation.

Assessment of risk to human health from simultaneous exposure to multiple contaminants in an artisanal gold mine in Serra Pelada, Pará, Brazil.

Contamination of soil, water and plants caused by gold mining is of great societal concern because of the risk of environmental pollution and risk to human health. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the risk to human health from ingestion of As, Ba, Co, Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Se and Ni present in soil, sterile and mineralized waste, and water and plants at a gold mine in Serra Pelada, Pará, Brazil. Samples of soil, sterile and mineralized waste, water and plants were collected around an artisanal gold mine located in Serra Pelada. The mean concentrations of potentially toxic elements in the soil were higher than the soil quality reference values as defined in the legislation, which may be attributeable to past mining activities. Water from the area close to the mine exhibited As, Ba and Pb concentrations exceeding the reference values established by the World Health Organization, deemed unfit for human consumption. Plants exhibited high Pb concentrations, representing a food safety risk to the population. The mean hazard index (HI) values were below the acceptable limit (1.0) established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, although the highest HI values observed for adults and children were higher than the respective acceptable limits. Environmental contamination and risk to human health were heterogeneous in the surroundings of the mine. Mitigation strategies need to be adopted to decrease the risks of contamination to the environment and to the local population.

Degree of phosphorus saturation of an Oxisol amended with biosolids in a long-term field experiment.

When applied to agricultural soils, phosphate fertilizers and the mineral or organic compounds present in solid and/or liquid waste may raise phosphorus (P) content and increase soil P saturation. The degree of phosphorus saturation (DPS) is a good indicator of potential P loss from agricultural soils. The purpose of this study was to calculate the DPS of samples from an Oxisol amended for 5 years with biosolids and mineral fertilizer. DPS was calculated based on P, iron, and aluminum extracted by ammonium oxalate and oxalic acid (DPSox) or by Mehlich-1 solution (DPSM1). Treatments included NPK mineral fertilization (175 kg ha(-1) of P), B1 = 19.02 t ha(-1) of biosolids (350 kg ha(-1) of P), B2 = 38.17 t ha(-1) of biosolids (703 kg ha(-1) of P), B3 = 76.26 t ha(-1) of biosolids (1,405 kg ha(-1) of P), and a control (no P added). Water-extractable P (WEP) was also measured. Critical levels of DPSox and DPSM1 (21 and 24 %, respectively) were only achieved in the topsoil (0-0.1 m) at the highest biosolid dose. Concentration of WEP was positively correlated to DPSox and DPSM1. The DPSM1 method may be an alternative to DPSox for assessing the environmental risk of P loss from soil into surface runoff.