Diabetes, hemoglobin A1c, and cognitive performance in older adults: is there any impact of frailty? Evidence from the ELSI-Brazil study.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between diabetes and cognitive performance in a nationally representative study in Brazil. We also aimed to investigate the interaction between frailty and diabetes on cognitive performance. A cross-sectional analysis of the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Aging (ELSI-Brazil) baseline data that included adults aged 50 years and older was conducted. Linear regression models were used to study the association between diabetes and cognitive performance. A total of 8,149 participants were included, and a subgroup analysis was performed in 1,768 with hemoglobin A1c data. Diabetes and hemoglobin A1c levels were not associated with cognitive performance. Interaction of hemoglobin A1c levels with frailty status was found on global cognitive z-score (P-value for interaction=0.038). These results suggested an association between higher hemoglobin A1c levels and lower cognitive performance only in non-frail participants. Additionally, undiagnosed diabetes with higher hemoglobin A1c levels was associated with both poor global cognitive (ß=-0.36; 95%CI: -0.62; -0.10, P=0.008) and semantic verbal fluency performance (ß=-0.47; 95%CI: -0.73; -0.21, P=0.001). In conclusion, higher hemoglobin A1c levels were associated with lower cognitive performance among non-frail participants. Higher hemoglobin A1c levels without a previous diagnosis of diabetes were also related to poor cognitive performance. Future longitudinal analyses of the ELSI-Brazil study will provide further information on the role of frailty in the association of diabetes and glycemic control with cognitive decline.

Co-occurrence of anxiety and depression amongst older adults in low- and middle-income countries: findings from the 10/66 study.

BACKGROUND: There is relative little information about the prevalence and risk factors of co-morbid anxiety and depression in later life. These disorders are often associated with worse response to treatment than either condition alone, and researching their epidemiology in diverse settings is vital to policy makers. We therefore investigated the co-occurrence of anxiety and depressive syndromes amongst older adults living in developing countries and measured the separate and joint effect of these two disorders on levels of associated disability. METHOD: The 10/66 study carried out cross-cultural surveys of all residents aged 65 years or over (n=15021) in 11 sites in seven countries (People's Republic of China, India, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Mexico and Peru). Anxiety was measured by using the Geriatric Mental State Examination and the Automated Geriatric Examination for Computer Assisted Taxonomy diagnostic system. Depression was assessed according to International Classification of Diseases 10th revision (ICD-10) and EURO-D criteria. Disability was measured by using the World Health Organization's Disablement Assessment Scale Version II. Zero-inflated negative binomial regression models were used to investigate the association of common mental disorders and disability. RESULTS: The prevalence of co-occurring anxiety and depression (with the exclusion of subthreshold disorders) ranged between 0.9% and 4.2% across sites. Gender, socio-economic status, urbanicity and physical co-morbidities were associated with the different co-morbid states. Having both disorders was linked to higher disability scores than having anxiety or depression alone. CONCLUSIONS: Given the close association of co-morbid anxiety and depression with disability, new policies to improve prevention, recognition and treatment will be needed to adapt to ageing populations and their mental health needs.

Mental and personality disorders and abstinence from alcohol: results from a national household survey.

BACKGROUND: The beneficial outcomes associated with moderate compared with low alcohol intake or abstinence may be due to the inclusion of people as 'low consumers', who have stopped consumption because of poor health. We investigated the association between alcohol abstinence and symptoms of common mental disorder and personality disorder, distinguishing between lifelong abstinence and abstinence following previous consumption. METHOD: Analyses were based on the British National Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity 2000, which sampled 8580 residents aged 16-74 years. Hazardous drinking (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test) was excluded. Symptoms of common mental disorder (depression/anxiety) were identified by the Clinical Interview Schedule. The screening questionnaire of the Structured Clinical Interview for Axis II Personality Disorders was used to identify potential personality disorder. Self-reported alcohol abstinence was divided into lifelong abstinence and previous consumption. Previous consumers were asked why they had stopped. Covariates included socio-economic status, social activity and general health status. RESULTS: After adjustment, alcohol abstinence was associated with both common mental disorder symptoms and any personality disorder, but only for previous consumers, in whom odds ratios were 1.69 (95% CI 1.23-2.32) and 1.45 (95% CI 1.09-1.94). Associations were non-specific, being apparent for most individual mental disorder symptoms and personality disorder categories. More detailed analysis indicated that associations were again limited to previous consumers who reported ceasing alcohol consumption for health reasons. CONCLUSIONS: Worse mental health in low alcohol consumers, particularly those who have previously ceased for health reasons, should be taken into account when interpreting associations between moderate (compared with low) alcohol consumption and beneficial health outcomes.

A brief dementia screener suitable for use by non-specialists in resource poor settings--the cross-cultural derivation and validation of the brief Community Screening Instrument for Dementia.

OBJECTIVE: Brief screening tools for dementia for use by non-specialists in primary care have yet to be validated in non-western settings where cultural factors and limited education may complicate the task. We aimed to derive a brief version of cognitive and informant scales from the Community Screening Instrument for Dementia (CSI-D) and to carry out initial assessments of their likely validity. METHODS: We applied Mokken analysis to CSI-D cognitive and informant scale data from 15 022 participants in representative population-based surveys in Latin America, India and China, to identify a subset of items from each that conformed optimally to item response theory scaling principles. The validity coefficients of the resulting brief scales (area under ROC curve, optimal cutpoint, sensitivity, specificity and Youden's index) were estimated from data collected in a previous cross-cultural validation of the full CSI-D. RESULTS: Seven cognitive items (Loevinger H coefficient 0.64) and six informant items (Loevinger H coefficient 0.69) were selected with excellent hierarchical scaling properties. For the brief cognitive scale, AUROC varied between 0.88 and 0.97, for the brief informant scale between 0.92 and 1.00, and for the combined algorithm between 0.94 and 1.00. Optimal cutpoints did not vary between regions. Youden's index for the combined algorithm varied between 0.78 and 1.00 by region. CONCLUSION: A brief version of the full CSI-D appears to share the favourable culture- and education-fair screening properties of the full assessment, despite considerable abbreviation. The feasibility and validity of the brief version still needs to be established in routine primary care.

Tobacco use among the elderly: The first Brazilian National Survey (BNAS).

OBJECTIVE: This study describes the prevalence and pattern of tobacco use among the elderly in Brazil and establishes its association with socio-demographic characteristics, other substance use and depression. METHOD: The analyses were performed in 400 individuals aged 60 years and over who participated in the first Brazilian national alcohol survey (BNAS) in 2000. RESULTS: Nearly 60% of the sample had ever smoked, of them one in three were still smoking at the time of the interview. Most (94.3%) of the tobacco users were smoking everyday and 34.3% consuming more than 20 cigarettes a day. Only 1% of the former smokers had received support to quit. Over half of the current users (65%) would use free treatment to quit if it existed in Brazil, and just under half of them (47.4%) would consider quitting if cigarettes' price were higher. Currently, tobacco users were more likely to be men and alcohol abusers. Prevalence of depression was high regardless participant smoking status (33.0% among non-smokers, 34.7% among current smokers and 39.3% among former smokers). There was no significant association between smoking and depression. CONCLUSION: This study found a disturbingly high proportion of tobacco users among the elderly in Brazil. According to the Global Burden of Disease project, tobacco has the highest mortality risk of all substance use categories, especially for the elderly. This study shows there is an urgent need to develop smoking cessation interventions targeted specifically to the elderly.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of dementia prevalence in seven developing countries: A STRiDE project.

The STRiDE project sets out to support the development of effective dementia policy in middle-income countries (Brazil, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Kenya, Mexico, and South Africa). As part of this it will generate new data about the prevalence of dementia for a subset of these countries. This study aims to identify the current estimates of dementia prevalence in these countries and where the gaps lie in the current literature. A systematic review was completed on 30th April 2019 across electronic databases, identifying dementia prevalence literature originating from any of the seven countries. Four hundred and twenty-nine records were identified following de-duplication; 28 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the systematic review. Pooled estimates of dementia prevalence ranged from 2% to 9% based on DSM-IV criteria; these figures were generally higher in studies using other diagnostic criteria (e.g. the 10/66 algorithm). Available prevalence data varied between countries. Only Brazil, Mexico and India had data derived from studies judged as having a low risk of bias. Irrespective of country, studies often were not explicit in detailing the representativeness of their sample, or whether there was non-response bias. Further transparent and externally valid dementia prevalence research is needed across the STRiDE countries.

Diabetes, hemoglobin A1c, and cognitive performance in older adults: is there any impact of frailty? Evidence from the ELSI-Brazil study

Abstract The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between diabetes and cognitive performance in a nationally representative study in Brazil. We also aimed to investigate the interaction between frailty and diabetes on cognitive performance. A cross-sectional analysis of the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Aging (ELSI-Brazil) baseline data that included adults aged 50 years and older was conducted. Linear regression models were used to study the association between diabetes and cognitive performance. A total of 8,149 participants were included, and a subgroup analysis was performed in 1,768 with hemoglobin A1c data. Diabetes and hemoglobin A1c levels were not associated with cognitive performance. Interaction of hemoglobin A1c levels with frailty status was found on global cognitive z-score (P-value for interaction=0.038). These results suggested an association between higher hemoglobin A1c levels and lower cognitive performance only in non-frail participants. Additionally, undiagnosed diabetes with higher hemoglobin A1c levels was associated with both poor global cognitive (β=-0.36; 95%CI: -0.62; -0.10, P=0.008) and semantic verbal fluency performance (β=-0.47; 95%CI: -0.73; -0.21, P=0.001). In conclusion, higher hemoglobin A1c levels were associated with lower cognitive performance among non-frail participants. Higher hemoglobin A1c levels without a previous diagnosis of diabetes were also related to poor cognitive performance. Future longitudinal analyses of the ELSI-Brazil study will provide further information on the role of frailty in the association of diabetes and glycemic control with cognitive decline.

The prevalence, correlates and impact of dementia in Cuba. A 10/66 group population-based survey.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to estimate the prevalence, correlates and impact of dementia in Havana and Matanzas, Cuba. METHODS: A 1-phase catchment area survey of all over 65-year-old residents of 7 catchment areas in Havana and 1 in Matanzas was conducted. Dementia diagnosis was established according to DSM-IV and our own, pre-validated 10/66 criteria. The impact of dementia was assessed through associations with needs for care, cutting back on work to care and caregiver psychological morbidity. RESULTS: We interviewed 2,944 older people, a response proportion of 96.4%. The prevalence of DSM-IV dementia was 6.4% and that of 10/66 dementia 10.8%. Both dementia outcomes were associated with older age, less education, a family history of dementia, shorter leg length and smaller skull circumference. Dementia, rather than physical health problems or depression, was the main contributor to needs for care (population-attributable prevalence fraction = 64.6%) and caregiver cutting back on work (population-attributable prevalence fraction = 57.3%). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of dementia in Cuba is similar to Europe. Among health conditions, dementia is the major contributor to dependency and caregiver economic and psychological strain. More attention needs to be given to it and other chronic diseases associated more with disability than premature mortality.

A comparative cross-cultural study of the prevalence of late life depression in low and middle income countries.

BACKGROUND: Current estimates of the prevalence of depression in later life mostly arise from studies carried out in Europe, North America and Asia. In this study we aimed to measure the prevalence of depression using a standardised method in a number of low and middle income countries (LMIC). METHODS: A one-phase cross-sectional survey involving over 17,000 participants aged 65 years and over living in urban and rural catchment areas in 13 sites from 9 countries (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Mexico, Venezuela, Peru, China, India and Nigeria). Depression was assessed and compared using ICD-10 and EURO-D criteria. RESULTS: Depression prevalence varied across sites according to diagnostic criteria. The lowest prevalence was observed for ICD-10 depressive episode (0.3 to 13.8%). When using the EURO-D depression scale, the prevalence was higher and ranged from 1.0% to 38.6%. The crude prevalence was particularly high in the Dominican Republic and in rural India. ICD-10 depression was also associated with increased age and being female. LIMITATIONS: Generalisability of findings outside of catchment areas is difficult to assess. CONCLUSIONS: Late life depression is burdensome, and common in LMIC. However its prevalence varies from culture to culture; its diagnosis poses a significant challenge and requires proper recognition of its expression.

Alcohol dependence criteria in DSM-III-R: presence of symptoms according to degree of severity.

According to DSM-III-R a positive diagnosis of alcohol dependence requires the presence of at least three of nine symptoms of a core dependence syndrome. In this study the presence of the nine symptoms according to degree of the severity of dependence is examined in 99 patients (mild, n = 23; moderate, n = 26; and severe, n = 50). It is shown that although the cut-off point for a positive diagnosis of dependence is the presence of "any three" out of nine DSM-III-R criteria, specific symptoms ("excessive drinking", "desire or efforts to control drinking", and "drinking despite major problems") have a high probability of occurrence across the dependence severity range (mild, moderate or severe). Conversely, other symptoms appear prominently only in the more severe cases ("much time devoted to alcohol", "important activities given up", and "drinking to relieve withdrawal"). The results suggest that in the DSM-III-R criteria for alcohol dependence some symptoms are more frequently associated with the diagnosis, while other symptoms are associated with severity of the alcohol dependence disorder.

Does multisite sampling improve patient heterogeneity in drug misuse research?

The aim of this study was to investigate whether multisite sampling increased heterogeneity among a sample of cocaine users from São Paulo, Brazil. Six hundred and fourteen cocaine users were interviewed at 23 fixed sites plus an out-of-treatment sample. The sites were then regrouped into six main types: university outpatient clinics, public outpatient clinics, public inpatient units, private inpatient units, HIV services and non-treatment. Marked differences were found between users recruited at these sites, especially in relation to age, gender, employment status, criminal history, history of prostitution, previous drug misuse treatment, duration of cocaine use and lifetime use of intravenous cocaine. These results suggest that multisite sampling is a valid method for increasing patient heterogeneity, but whether it improves representativeness and thus the generalisability of drug misuse research is debatable.

Route of cocaine administration: patterns of use and problems among a Brazilian sample.

Route of administration has important implications for the understanding of drug addiction and related-problems. This cross-sectional study investigates patterns of consumption and cocaine-related problems among snorting and crack cocaine users in São Paulo and outlines changes in route of cocaine administration in Brazil between 1980-1997. Crack cocaine users had more social and health problems and higher involvement in crime than intranasal users. These problems, compounded by the larger doses being used and their greater involvement in prostitution, place crack cocaine users at higher risk from HIV infection and other sexually transmitted diseases as well as other physical risks.

Epidemiological methods for research with drug misusers: review of methods for studying prevalence and morbidity.

Epidemiological studies of drug misusers have until recently relied on two main forms of sampling: probability and convenience. The former has been used when the aim was simply to estimate the prevalence of the condition and the latter when in depth studies of the characteristics, profiles and behaviour of drug users were required, but each method has its limitations. Probability samples become impracticable when the prevalence of the condition is very low, less than 0.5% for example, or when the condition being studied is a clandestine activity such as illicit drug use. When stratified random samples are used, it may be difficult to obtain a truly representative sample, depending on the quality of the information used to develop the stratification strategy. The main limitation of studies using convenience samples is that the results cannot be generalised to the whole population of drug users due to selection bias and a lack of information concerning the sampling frame. New methods have been developed which aim to overcome some of these difficulties, for example, social network analysis, snowball sampling, capture-recapture techniques, privileged access interviewer method and contact tracing. All these methods have been applied to the study of drug misuse. The various methods are described and examples of their use given, drawn from both the Brazilian and international drug misuse literature.

[Increase in the search for treatment by crack users in 2 outpatient clinics at the city of Sao Paulo from 1990 to 1993]. / Aumento da procura de tratamento por usuários de crack em dois ambulatórios na cidade de São Paulo, nos anos de 1990 a 1993.

UNLABELLED: An increase in crack use epidemiological research and police data. Currently, in Brazil, no data are available linking the route of administration and attendance to treatment for cocaine dependence. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this paper was to analyze the changes in cocaine routes of administration in a cocaine dependent population treatment in two outpatient public services (PROAD and UDED). METHOD: Standardized interview data, collected at admission to treatment were compared from 1990 to 1993. The prevalence rates of smoked ("crack"), injected and snorted cocaine were compared. RESULTS: The percentage of patients who reported "crack" cocaine use increased from 17% in 1990 to 64% in 1993 (p < 0.01) The prevalence of snorted cocaine remained stable in the period of time analyzed, being the most frequent route reported. The intravenous route tended to decrease from 40% in 1990 to 28% in 1993. CONCLUSION: The implications of the increase of "crack" cocaine users who sought treatment are discussed. These data are important in planning prevention and treatment strategies, mainly in AIDS prevention.

Alcohol consumption in late-life--the first Brazilian National Alcohol Survey (BNAS).

To investigate the alcohol consumption in later life in Brazil and its association with socio-demographic characteristics. This study was a cross-sectional analysis of nationally representative survey data. A multistage cluster sampling procedure was used to select 3007 individuals of 14 years of age and older from the Brazilian household population. In this study we analyzed data from all 400 participants who were over 60 years old. Alcohol Abuse and Dependence Syndrome was established according to DSM-IV and Risky Drinking was defined in two ways: heavy drinkers (>7 drinks/week) and as binge drinkers (>3 drinks/one occasion). Twelve percent of participants reported heavy drinking behavior while 10.4% and 2.9% were binge drinkers and alcohol dependent respectively. In the adjusted logistic regression only gender was associated with heavy drinking behavior. Males, the youngest and the wealthiest were more likely to report binge drinking behaviors. In conclusion, alcohol related-problems are common but under recognized among older adults. Health professionals should be aware that common definitions of alcohol abuse and dependence may not apply as readily to older people, who have had biological changes for alcohol tolerance and its effects on the Central Nervous System.

High dose cocaine use in São Paulo: a comparison of treatment and community samples.

This cross-sectional study investigates patterns of drug use and associated problems among 332 cocaine users from treatment and community samples in São Paulo, Brazil. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire and the Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS). The majority were regular users of high doses of smoked cocaine. After controlling for severity of cocaine use, users in the community were found to be more involved in illegal activities, more likely to report adverse effects of cocaine, to be involved in prostitution, and to have lived on the streets. Better methods are required to provide interventions to tackle the problems and risk behaviors of these cocaine users.

Behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia in developing countries.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the prevalence of, or associations with behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) in developing countries. METHODS: Individuals diagnosed as having dementia according to DSM-IV criteria (mild and moderate cases as defined by the Clinical Dementia Rating scale only), together with their main caregiver, were recruited from 21 centers in 17 developing countries. People with dementia were directly assessed with the Community Screening Interview for Dementia and the Geriatric Mental State Schedule (GMS); GMS data were processed by the AGECAT computer program to yield diagnostic information on 8 psychiatric syndromes. Caregivers answered direct questions about behavioral symptoms of dementia (BSD) and completed the Zarit Burden Inventory. RESULTS: At least one BSD was reported in 70.9% of the 555 participants. At least one case-level AGECAT psychiatric syndrome (not including the organic syndrome) was exhibited by 49.5% of people with dementia. Depression syndromes (43.8%) were most common followed by anxiety neurosis (14.2%) and schizophreniform/paranoid psychosis (10.9%). Caregivers were more likely to report BSD in people with dementia who were married, younger and better educated. More advanced dementia, poorer functioning and the presence of depression or anxiety were each associated with BSD. BSD, and psychiatric syndromes (anxiety neurosis and schizophreniform/paranoid psychosis) predicted caregiver strain after controlling for cognitive impairment. BPSD are poorly understood, leading to shame and blame. CONCLUSIONS: BPSD are common among people with dementia in developing countries, though we found marked regional variations. Representative population studies are needed to clarify prevalence and impact, but our research suggests considerable unmet need, with much scope for intervention. Raising awareness of the problem should be the first step.

Crack cocaine: an increase in use among patients attending clinics in São Paulo: 1990-1993.

Unsubstantiated reports suggest that the availability and use of crack are increasing in São Paulo. To investigate this claim we used the databases from two outpatient clinics for drug users at a public hospital and examined the changes in the reported routes of administration of cocaine among 245 patients who had attended between 1990 and 1993. The proportion reporting crack use increased from 17% in 1990 to 64% in 1993 (p < .01). It does not seem that this increase was simply due to changes in demographic variables. Treatment policies need to be reviewed and HIV harm-reduction programs should focus more on the risks of sexual transmission.

The Prevalence, Correlates and Impact of Dementia in Cuba

We aimed to estimate the prevalence, correlates and impact of dementia in Havana and Matanzas, Cuba. Methods: A 1-phase catchment area survey of all over 65-year-old residents of 7 catchment areas in Havana and 1 in Matanzas was conducted. Dementia diagnosis was established according to DSM-IV and our own, pre-validated10/66 criteria. The impact of dementia was assessed through associations with needs for care, cutting back on work to care and caregiver psychological morbidity...(AU)