Food group intake of children and adolescents (6-18 years) on a vegetarian, vegan or omnivore diet: results of the VeChi Youth Study.

Plant-based, i.e. vegetarian (without meat and fish) or vegan (exclusively plant-based foods) diets are in trend also among children and adolescents, but data on food intake in this group are lacking. Here, we compare the consumption of food groups of vegetarian (n 145), vegan (n 110) and omnivore (n 135) children and adolescents (6-18 years) in Germany using data of the VeChi Youth Study. Each food item reported in 3 d weighed dietary records was assigned to one of eighteen food groups and individual mean intake per day (g/MJ) was calculated. Group differences were assessed using covariance analyses adjusted for age, sex and other covariates. For food groups with a high number of non-consumers, non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis tests were run. Pairwise comparison of vegetarian and vegan groups indicated significantly higher intakes of legumes, nuts, milk alternatives (all P = 0·0003) and meat alternatives (P = 0·0065) among vegan subjects. Intake of these food groups of omnivore participants was low (Q3:0·0 g/MJ for legumes, milk alternatives and meat alternatives, 0·5 g/MJ for nuts). Dairy intake of vegetarians (11·6 g/MJ) was significantly lower than of omnivore subjects (24·7 g/MJ) (P = 0·0003). Intake of fats/oils and sweet foods was lowest in vegan compared with vegetarian and omnivore participants (P< 0·05). Whole grain intake was higher in vegan participants (14·5 g/MJ) than of vegetarian (9·1 g/MJ) and omnivore (6·5 g/MJ) participants (P = 0·0003). Longitudinal studies are necessary to evaluate the long-term health consequences of vegetarian, vegan and omnivore food patterns, especially in childhood and adolescence.

Intake of micronutrients and fatty acids of vegetarian, vegan, and omnivorous children (1-3 years) in Germany (VeChi Diet Study).

PURPOSE: There is an ongoing debate whether vegetarian (VG) and especially vegan (VN) diets are nutritionally adequate in early childhood. Hence, the Vegetarian and Vegan Children Study (VeChi Diet Study) aimed to assess the food and nutrient intake of VG and VN infants. METHODS: The study examined the diets of 1-3-year-old VG, VN, and omnivorous (OM) children (n = 430). Dietary intake was assessed via a 3-day weighed dietary record and compared between groups using ANCOVA. Lifestyle data were collected using a questionnaire. Here, the results of micronutrient and fatty acid intakes are presented. RESULTS: Most nutrient intakes (with and without supplements) differed significantly between VN children and the two other groups, with a more favourable overall micronutrient intake in VN, followed by VG children, [e.g., the highest intake of vitamin E (8.3 mg/d vs. VG 7.4 mg/d and OM 5.1 mg/d), vitamin B1 (569 µg/d vs. VG 513 µg/d and OM 481 µg/d), folate (143 µg/d vs. VG 116 µg/d and OM 108 µg/d), magnesium (241 mg/d vs. VG 188 mg/d and OM 164 mg/d), and iron (8.9 mg/d vs. VG 7.3 mg/d and OM 6.0 mg/d)] as well as fat quality [highest intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (8.7 E% vs. VG 6.9 E% and OM 4.5 E%) and lowest intake of saturated fatty acids (9.1 E% vs. VG 11.9 E% and OM 14.0 E%)]. In contrast, OM children had the highest intake of vitamin B2 (639 µg/d vs. VG 461 µg/d and VN 429 µg/d), calcium (445 mg/d vs. VG 399 mg/d and VN 320 mg/d), iodine (47 µg/d vs. VG 33 µg/d and VN 31 µg/d), and DHA (35.4 mg/d vs. VG 16.6 mg/d and VN 18.4 mg/d). Without supplementation, OM children had the highest average vitamin B12 intake (1.5 µg/d vs. VG 0.6 µg/d and VN 0.2 µg/d), whereas VN children had the highest average vitamin B12 intake with supplementation (73.8 µg/d vs. VG 1.3 µg/d and OM 1.7 µg/d). Without supplementation, none of the groups' median intakes met the harmonised Average Requirement (h-AR) for vitamin D and iodine. Moreover, VG and VN children did not achieve h-ARs for vitamin B2, vitamin B12, and iron-if a low absorption of iron is anticipated; VN children also did not do so for calcium. CONCLUSION: In early childhood, VN and VG diets can provide most micronutrients in desirable amounts and a preferable fat quality compared to an OM diet. Special focus should be paid to (potentially) critical nutrients, particularly vitamin D, iodine, and DHA for all children regardless of diet, as well as vitamin B2, vitamin B12, calcium, and iron for VG and VN children. TRAIL REGISTRATION: This study was registered with the German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS00010982) on (September 2, 2016).

How Does Selenium Intake Differ among Children (1-3 Years) on Vegetarian, Vegan, and Omnivorous Diets? Results of the VeChi Diet Study.

In regions with low selenium soil concentrations, selenium can be considered a critical nutrient for vegetarians and vegans. While the number of vegetarians and vegans is increasing in many countries, a large research gap remains in this field. For example, to date, no study seems to have assessed selenium intake in vegetarian and vegan children. Therefore, the selenium intake of 1- to 3-year-old vegetarian, vegan, and omnivorous children who participated in the cross-sectional VeChi Diet study was determined. Selenium intake was assessed based on 3-day food diaries (not including supplements) and food selenium concentrations provided by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Between-group differences were assessed with analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The median daily selenium intake was 17 µg, 19 µg, and 22 µg in vegetarian, vegan, and omnivorous children, respectively. However, only the difference between the vegan and omnivorous children was statistically significant. On average, all three groups met the harmonized average requirement (H-AR) for selenium of 17 µg/day. Nevertheless, the hypothesis that vegetarian and vegan children generally consume less selenium than omnivorous children could be confirmed, and 39% of vegetarians, 36% of vegans, and 16% of omnivores fell below the adequate intake for selenium (provided by EFSA) of 15 µg/day.

Food Costs of Children and Adolescents Consuming Vegetarian, Vegan or Omnivore Diets: Results of the Cross-Sectional VeChi Youth Study.

The aim was to analyse the total food costs and the impact of food groups on total food costs among vegetarian, vegan and omnivore children and adolescents in Germany. Based on three-day weighed dietary records of 6-18-year-old children and adolescents of the VeChi Youth Study, the total daily food costs and food group costs (both EUR/day, EUR/1000 kcal) of a vegetarian (n = 145 records), vegan (n = 110) and omnivore (n = 135) diet were calculated. Minimum retail prices of 1000 empirically selected foods reported in the dietary records were linked to individual food intakes. The group differences were analysed using ANCOVA or Kruskal-Wallis tests. Vegans had the highest energy adjusted total food costs at 2.98 EUR/1000 kcal, vegetarians the lowest at 2.52 EUR/1000 kcal. Omnivores also had significantly higher costs than vegetarians with 2.83 EUR/1000 kcal/1000 kcal (p = 0.01), but the total costs did not differ significantly between omnivores and vegans (EUR/d and EUR/1000 kcal). Compared to vegetarians, vegans had significantly higher expenditures (EUR/day) on fruit (p = 0.0003), vegetables (p = 0.006), dairy alternatives (p = 0.0003) and legumes/nuts/seeds (p = 0.0003). Expenditure on starchy foods was significantly higher in the vegetarian or vegan than in the omnivore diet (p = 0.0003). Omnivores spent a quarter of their total food costs on animal source foods (25%), which is equivalent to the sum of food costs for legumes/nuts/seeds, dairy alternatives and meat alternatives in vegans and additionally dairy in vegetarians. The VeChi Youth Study indicated that financial constraints are not necessarily a barrier to switching to a more plant-based diet.

Nutrient Intake and Status of German Children and Adolescents Consuming Vegetarian, Vegan or Omnivore Diets: Results of the VeChi Youth Study.

There is a lack of data on associations between modern vegetarian and vegan diets and health among children and adolescents. The aim of the Vechi Youth Study was to cross-sectionally examine anthropometry, dietary intakes and nutritional status in a sample of 149 vegetarian, 115 vegan and 137 omnivore children and adolescents (6-18 years old, mean age: 12.7 ± 3.9 years). Group differences of dietary intake (calculated from three-day dietary records), nutrient biomarker and blood lipid concentrations were assessed using an analysis of covariance, adjusted for sex, age and other covariates. The total energy intake did not differ significantly between groups, but intake of carbohydrates was higher among vegetarians and vegans than among omnivores (p = 0.0002, respectively). The median protein intake exceeded 0.9 g/kg body weight/day in all diet groups and was lowest among vegetarians (p < 0.02). There was no significant difference of haemoglobin, vitamin B2, 25-OH vitamin D3, HDL-C and triglycerides blood concentrations between diet groups. Vegan participants had higher folate concentrations than vegetarian participants (p = 0.0053). Ferritin concentration was significantly higher in omnivores than in vegetarians (p = 0.0134) and vegans (p = 0.0404). Vegetarians had lower concentrations of holotranscobalamin (p = 0.0042) and higher concentrations of methylmalonic acid (p = 0.0253) than omnivores. Vegans had the lowest non-HDL-C and LDL-C concentrations in comparison to vegetarians (p = 0.0053 and p = 0.0041) and omnivores (p = 0.0010 and p = 0.0010). A high prevalence (>30%) of 25-OH vitamin D3 and vitamin B2 concentrations below reference values were found irrespective of the diet group. In conclusion, the Vechi Youth Study did not indicate specific nutritional risks among vegetarian and vegan children and adolescents compared to omnivores.