Between- and within-person effects of stress on emotional eating in women: a longitudinal study over 49 days.

BACKGROUND: Stress is associated with binge eating and emotional eating (EE) cross-sectionally. However, few studies have examined stress longitudinally, limiting understanding of how within-person fluctuations in stress influence EE over time and whether stress is a risk factor or consequence of EE. Additionally, little is known regarding how the biological stress response relates to EE. METHODS: We used an intensive, longitudinal design to examine between-person and within-person effects of major life stress, daily stress, and cortisol on EE in a population-based sample of women (N = 477; ages 15-30; M = 21.8; s.d. = 3.0) from the Michigan State University Twin Registry. Participants reported past year major life stress, then provided daily ratings of EE and stress for 49 consecutive days. Hair cortisol concentration (HCC) was collected as a longitudinal biological stress measure. RESULTS: Women reported greater EE when they experienced greater mean stress across days (between-person effects) or greater stress relative to their own average on a given day (within-person effects). Daily stress was more strongly associated with EE than major life stress. However, the impact of daily stress on EE was amplified in women with greater past year major life stress. Finally, participants with lower HCC had increased EE. CONCLUSIONS: Findings confirm longitudinal associations between stress and EE in women, and highlight the importance of within-person shifts in stress in EE risk. Results also highlight HCC as a novel biological stress measure that is significantly associated with EE and may overcome limitations of prior physiological stress response indicators.

A daily diary study of emotion regulation as a moderator of negative affect-binge eating associations.

BACKGROUND: While negative affect (NA) typically increases risk for binge eating, the ultimate impact of NA may depend on a person's ability to regulate their emotions. In this daily, longitudinal study, we examined whether emotion regulation (ER) modified the strength of NA-dysregulated eating associations. METHODS: Women (N = 311) from the Michigan State University Twin Registry first reported dimensional binge eating symptoms and broad ER difficulties (e.g., limited emotional awareness, difficulty controlling emotional impulses). Participants then rated use of adaptive (cognitive reappraisal, social sharing, situation modification, and acceptance) and maladaptive (rumination, expressive suppression, and self-criticism) ER strategies, emotional eating (EE), objective binge eating (OBE), and NA once daily for 49 consecutive days. RESULTS: There were several main effects of ER on binge-eating pathology in both between-person (i.e., comparing women who differed on average) and within-person (i.e., examining fluctuations in variables day-to-day) analyses. Between-person, greater broad ER difficulties, greater maladaptive strategy use, and lower adaptive strategy use were all associated with greater binge-eating pathology. Within-person, greater maladaptive strategy use was associated with greater odds of OBE on that day and on the following day. However, neither broad ER difficulties nor use of specific strategies moderated associations between NA and dysregulated eating in between- or within-person analyses. CONCLUSIONS: While ER is independently associated with risk for dysregulated eating, it may not fully mitigate the impact of NA. Additional strategies (e.g., decreasing environmental stressors and increasing social support) may be needed to minimize NA and its impact on dysregulated eating. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: Negative affect (NA; e.g., sadness, guilt) increases dysregulated eating risk. Because NA is sometimes unavoidable, we examined whether emotion regulation (ER; i.e., how a person responds to their emotions) might impact whether NA leads to dysregulated eating. Although more effective ER was associated with less dysregulated eating overall, ER did not impact the association between NA and dysregulated eating. Other approaches may therefore be needed to mitigate NA-dysregulated eating associations.

The effects of puberty on associations between mood/personality factors and disordered eating symptoms in girls.

OBJECTIVE: Negative and positive urgency, anxiety, and depressive symptoms are significant factors of disordered eating (DE) symptoms in early adolescence through young adulthood. However, it is unclear how puberty-a critical developmental milestone that is associated with increased risk for DE symptoms-affects the relationship between these factors and DE symptoms, given that the role of pubertal status has rarely been considered in relation to these associations. Thus, the present study examined whether puberty moderates associations between mood/personality factors and DE in pre-adolescent and adolescent girls. METHOD: Participants included 981 girls (aged 8-16 years) from the Michigan State University Twin Registry. Mood/personality factors, pubertal status, and DE were assessed with self-report questionnaires. RESULTS: Puberty significantly moderated associations between several factors (negative urgency, positive urgency, trait anxiety, depressive symptoms) and the cognitive symptoms of DE (e.g., shape/weight concerns, body dissatisfaction). Associations between mood/personality factors and cognitive DE were stronger in girls with more advanced pubertal status. By contrast, no significant moderation effects were detected for mood/personality-dysregulated eating (e.g., binge eating, emotional eating) associations. DISCUSSION: Findings identify pubertal development as an important moderator of mood/personality-DE symptom associations, especially for cognitive DE symptoms that are known to predict the later onset of clinical pathology.

A virtual issue highlighting animal studies of eating disorders as valuable tools for examining neurobiological underpinnings and treatment of eating disorders.

While studies in humans suggest a role for psychosocial factors as well as biological and genetic processes in the development of eating disorders, the specific etiologic mechanisms remain largely unknown. In this virtual issue, we present a collection of 14 archived articles from the International Journal of Eating Disorders to highlight the utility of animal studies of eating disorders to advance our understanding of eating disorder etiology. Selected articles establish animal studies as valid tools to study disordered eating behavior, offer insight into potential neurobiological mechanisms, and highlight novel targets for future pharmacological treatments. Clinical implications of each article's findings are included to demonstrate the translational value of animal studies for the eating disorders field. We hope that the exciting concepts and findings in this issue inspire future animal studies of eating disorders.

Associations between ovarian hormones and emotional eating across the menstrual cycle: Do ovulatory shifts in hormones matter?

OBJECTIVE: Elevated ovarian hormone levels are associated with increased risk for binge eating (BE) and emotional eating (EE) during the midluteal phase of the menstrual cycle. However, past studies have not examined whether pronounced hormonal changes that precede the midluteal phase (i.e., the dramatic decrease in estradiol and increase in progesterone during/after ovulation) also influence midluteal increases in binge-related symptoms. Past theories and studies of phenotypes strongly related to BE (e.g., depression) suggest that these pronounced hormonal changes may also contribute. This study examined this possibility in 375 female twins (aged 15-25 years) from the Michigan State University Twin Registry. METHODS: Daily ratings of EE (assessed with the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire) and daily saliva samples of estradiol and progesterone were collected for 45 consecutive days. RESULTS: No significant associations were found between pronounced changes in estradiol or progesterone across ovulation and changes in EE scores in the midluteal phase. Results remained unchanged after controlling for body mass index and negative affect and examining participants with clinical BE episodes or more extreme hormonal fluctuations. DISCUSSION: In aggregate, the current findings and past data suggest that hormone levels are more significant predictors of EE than pronounced hormonal changes across the menstrual cycle.

The significant effects of puberty on the genetic diathesis of binge eating in girls.

OBJECTIVE: Recent data show significant phenotypic and genetic associations between ovarian hormones and binge eating in adulthood. Theories of hormonal risk focus on puberty and the possibility that hormone activation induces changes in genetic effects that then lead to differential risk for binge eating in postpuberty and adulthood. Although this theory is difficult to test in humans, an indirect test is to examine whether genetic influences on binge eating increase during the pubertal period in girls. Prior work has shown pubertal increases in genetic influences on overall disordered eating symptoms, but no study to date has examined binge eating. The present study was the first to examine these increases for binge eating. METHODS: Participants included 1,568 female twins (aged 8-25 years) from the Michigan State University Twin Registry. Binge eating and pubertal development were assessed with self-report questionnaires. RESULTS: Twin moderation models showed significant linear increases in genetic effects from prepuberty (5%) to postpuberty (42%), even after controlling for the effects of age and body mass index. DISCUSSION: Results provide critical support for increased genetic influences on binge eating during puberty. Additional studies are needed to identify hormonal mechanisms and fully test contemporary models of ovarian hormone risk.

The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on disordered eating symptoms in women: A 49-day, daily study before and during the outbreak in the United States.

Longitudinal data are needed to examine effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on disordered eating. We capitalized on an ongoing, longitudinal study collecting daily data to examine changes in disordered eating symptoms in women across 49 days that spanned the time before and during the COVID-19 outbreak in the United States. Women from the Michigan State University Twin Registry (N = 402) completed daily questionnaires assessing a range of symptoms (e.g., binge eating, weight/shape concerns, liking/wanting of palatable food (PF) and whole foods, hunger). Dates of the first US COVID-19 case, first case in each participant's state, and onset of the initial stay-at-home orders (SHOs) were used to categorize women into those who completed all daily assessments prior to, during, or after these dates. We used mixed linear models and specification-curve analysis to examine between-person (i.e., differences between women assessed before vs during/after COVID-19) and within-person (i.e., changes in symptoms from days before to days after the dates) effects of the pandemic. Results showed significantly higher levels of binge-related pathology (e.g., odds of binge eating, liking/wanting of PF) in women who completed assessments during/after COVID-19 events, and significantly increased liking/wanting of PF in the days following the pandemic onset. By contrast, minimal between- or within-person differences were observed for other variables, including weight/shape concerns, compensatory behaviors, hunger, or liking/wanting whole foods. Overall, results suggest a specific effect of the pandemic on binge-related phenotypes in women. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The effects of puberty and ovarian hormone removal on developmental trajectories of palatable food and chow intake in female rats.

OBJECTIVE: Palatable food (PF) intake is significantly greater in females than males and increases during adolescence. Previous data suggest that puberty and ovarian hormones may contribute to these sex and developmental differences, but few studies have examined this possibility. The aim of the current study was to address these gaps by examining trajectories of PF and chow intake during pre-puberty, puberty, and adulthood in intact female rats (Study 1) as well as in those receiving pre-pubertal ovariectomies (P-OVX) (Study 2). METHOD: We examined our study aims using archival data from 66 intact Sprague-Dawley female rats (Study 1) and 77 P-OVX and 79 intact Sprague-Dawley female rats (Study 2). PF and chow intake were measured using a free-choice, intermittent exposure paradigm in which rats were exposed to both food types starting in pre-puberty and continuing into adulthood. RESULTS: Mixed linear models revealed a specific effect of puberty on PF intake in both studies. PF intake increased substantially during puberty in all rats, but increases were particularly pronounced in P-OVX rats in Study 2. By contrast, chow intake increased significantly during pre-puberty (rather than puberty) in both studies, and these increases were relatively unaffected by P-OVX. DISCUSSION: Findings confirm a specific effect of puberty and ovarian hormone removal on PF intake in female rats. Differential trajectories of PF versus chow intake highlight potential reward-based processes in pubertal and ovarian hormone effects on PF intake in females.

The Role of Puberty and Ovarian Hormones in the Genetic Diathesis of Eating Disorders in Females.

Puberty is a critical risk period for eating disorders (EDs). ED incidence increases across the pubertal period and becomes female predominant, and genetic influences on disordered eating significantly increase. Surges of ovarian hormones, particularly estrogen, may drive this increasing genetic effect for EDs in pubertal girls and contribute to differential phenotypic presentations beyond puberty. In this article, we explain phenotypic associations between puberty and disordered eating and present evidence showing underlying genetic and hormonal influence. Potential benefits of communicating roles of genetic influence to people with or at risk for EDs are also discussed.

Stress as a potential moderator of ovarian hormone influences on binge eating in women.

Previous research has demonstrated significant associations between increased levels of ovarian hormones and increased rates of binge eating (BE) in women. However, whereas all women experience fluctuations in ovarian hormones across the menstrual cycle, not all women binge eat in response to these fluctuations, suggesting that other factors must contribute. Stress is one potential contributing factor. Specifically, it may be that hormone-BE associations are stronger in women who experience high levels of stress, particularly as stress has been shown to be a precipitant to BE episodes in women. To date, no studies have directly examined stress as a moderator of hormone-BE associations, but indirect data (that is, associations between BE and stress and between ovarian hormones and stress) could provide initial clues about moderating effects. Given the above, the purpose of this narrative review was to evaluate these indirect data and their promise for understanding the role of stress in hormone-BE associations. Studies examining associations between all three phenotypes (that is, ovarian hormones, stress, and BE) in animals and humans were reviewed to provide the most thorough and up-to-date review of the literature on the potential moderating effects of stress on ovarian hormone-BE associations. Overall, current evidence suggests that associations between hormones and BE may be stronger in women with high stress levels, possibly via altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to stress and increased sensitivity to and altered effects of ovarian hormones during stress. Additional studies are necessary to directly examine stress as a moderator of ovarian hormone-BE associations and identify the mechanisms underlying these effects.

Correlates of Dietary Adherence and Maladaptive Eating Patterns Following Roux-en-Y Bariatric Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Self-reported poor dietary adherence following bariatric surgery is associated with less successful weight loss outcomes. Poor dietary adherence is a global construct lacking specificity regarding its underlying, clinically targetable, maladaptive eating behaviors. METHODS: Comprehensive online survey data were obtained from a sample of 274 adults who underwent Roux-en-Y surgery in the prior 1-12 years. Correlations between dietary adherence and six eating-related behaviors were calculated, with the frequency of each behavior reported on a 7-point scale. Linear regression modeling was applied. RESULTS: All six maladaptive eating behaviors were highly correlated with dietary adherence (Pearson's r > 0.5): grazing (r = - 0.565), mindless eating (r = - 0.572), loss of control eating (r = - 0.517), eating "more than is best" after dinner (r = - 0.518), eating foods off of one's plan (r = - 0.557), and "when I eat something off-plan, I feel like I have blown it and I give up and eat more" (r = - 0.574). The estimated regression coefficients in the linear model was statistically significant, [F(5, 261) = 60.006, p < 0.001] and accounted for approximately 54% of the variance of global dietary adherence (R 2 = 0.535, adjusted R 2 = 0.526). CONCLUSION: Six maladaptive eating behaviors accounted for a highly significant portion of post-Roux-en-Y patients' poor self- reported dietary adherence. Prospective studies are needed to investigate the relationship between targetable maladaptive eating behaviors and bariatric surgery outcomes.

Estrogen moderates genetic influences on binge eating during puberty: Disruption of normative processes?

Puberty is a critical period for changes in genetic effects for binge eating in girls. Previous twin studies show increases in genetic influences on binge eating from prepuberty (∼0%) to midpuberty and beyond (∼50%). However, little is known about the factors that drive these shifts in genetic effects. A small pilot study showed that pubertal activation of estrogen may contribute to increases in genetic influences, possibly via hormonally induced changes in gene expression. However, large-scale studies investigating hormone effects on genetic risk are lacking. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of estrogen on genetic influences for binge eating in 964 female twins (ages 8-16 years) from the Michigan State University Twin Registry. Binge eating was assessed with the Minnesota Eating Behaviors Survey, whereas afternoon saliva samples were assayed for estradiol levels using standard enzyme immunoassays. Twin moderation models showed substantial differences in genetic influences on binge eating across estradiol levels. Stronger genetic effects were observed at lower (rather than higher) estradiol levels, even when controlling for the effects of age, body mass index, the physical changes of puberty, and the onset of menses. Overall, findings suggest that comparatively lower levels of estradiol during this critical period may disrupt normative developmental processes and enhance genetic influences on binge eating. (PsycINFO Database Record