Comparative analysis of lanthanide excited state quenching by electronic energy and electron transfer processes.

The relative sensitivities of structurally related Eu(III) complexes to quenching by electron and energy transfer processes have been compared. In two sets of 9-coordinate complexes based on 1,4,7-triazacyclononane, the Eu emission lifetime decreased as the number of conjugated sensitising groups and the number of unbound ligand N atoms increased, consistent with photoinduced electron transfer to the excited Eu(III) ion that is suppressed by N-protonation. Quenching of the Eu 5D0 excited state may also occur by electronic energy transfer, and the quenching of a variety of 9-coordinate complexes by a cyanine dye with optimal spectral overlap occurs by an efficient FRET process, defined by a Förster radius (R0) value of 68 Å and characterised by second rate constants in the order of 109 M-1 s-1; these values were insensitive to changes in the ligand structure and to the overall complex hydrophilicity. Quenching of the Eu and Tb excited states by energy transfer to Mn(II) and Cu(II) aqua ions occurred over much shorter distances, with rate constants of around 106 M-1 s-1, owing to the much lower spectral overlap integral. The calculated R0 values were estimated to be between 2.5 to 4 Å in the former case, suggesting the presence of a Dexter energy transfer mechanism that requires much closer contact, consistent with the enhanced sensitivity of the rate of quenching to the degree of steric shielding of the lanthanide ion provided by the ligand.

The design of responsive luminescent lanthanide probes and sensors.

The principles of the design of responsive luminescent probes and sensors based on lanthanide emission are summarised, based on a mechanistic understanding of their mode of action. Competing kinetic pathways for deactivation of the excited states that occur are described, highlighting the need to consider each of the salient quenching processes. Such an analysis dictates the choice of both the ligand and its integral sensitising moiety for the particular application. The key aspects of quenching involving electron transfer and vibrational and electronic energy transfer are highlighted and exemplified. Responsive systems for pH, pM, pX and pO2 and selected biochemical analytes are distinguished, according to the nature of the optical signal observed. Signal changes include both simple and ratiometric intensity measurements, emission lifetime variations and the unique features associated with the observation of circularly polarised luminescence (CPL) for chiral systems. A classification of responsive lanthanide probes is introduced. Examples of the operation of probes for reactive oxygen species, citrate, bicarbonate, α1-AGP and pH are used to illustrate reversible and irreversible transformations of the ligand constitution, as well as the reversible changes to the metal primary and secondary coordination sphere that sensitively perturb the ligand field. Finally, systems that function by modulation of dynamic quenching of the ligand or metal excited states are described, including real time observation of endosomal acidification in living cells, rapid urate analysis in serum, accurate temperature assessment in confined compartments and high throughput screening of drug binding to G-protein coupled receptors.

Synthesis and Evaluation of Europium Complexes that Switch on Luminescence in Lysosomes of Living Cells.

A set of four luminescent EuIII complexes bearing an extended aryl-alkynylpyridine chromophore has been studied, showing very different pH-dependent behaviour in their absorption and emission spectral response. For two complexes with pKa values of 6.45 and 6.20 in protein-containing solution, the emission lifetime increases very significantly following protonation. By varying the gate time during signal acquisition, the 'switch-on' intensity ratio could be optimised, and enhancement factors of between 250 to 1330 were measured between pH 8 and 4. The best-behaved probe showed no significant emission dependence on the concentration of endogenous cations, reductants, and serum albumin. It was examined in live-cell imaging studies to monitor time-dependent lysosomal acidification, for which the increase in observed image brightness due to acidification was a factor of 50 in NIH-3T3 cells.

Versatile Para-Substituted Pyridine Lanthanide Coordination Complexes Allow Late Stage Tailoring of Complex Function.

A series of cationic and neutral p-Br and p-NO2 pyridine substituted Eu(III) and Gd(III) coordination complexes serve as versatile synthetic intermediates. Nucleophilic aromatic substitution occurs readily at the para position under mild conditions, allowing C-N and C-C bond forming reactions to take place, permitting the introduction of azide, amino and alkynyl substituents. For Eu(III) complexes, this approach allows late stage tuning of absorption and emission spectral properties, exemplified by the lowering of the energy of an LMCT transition accompanied by a reduction in the Eu-Npy bond length. Additionally, these complexes provide direct access to the corresponding Eu(II) analogues. With the Gd(III) series, the nature of the p-substituent does not significantly change the EPR properties (linewidth, relaxation times), as required for their development as EPR spin probes that can be readily conjugated to biomolecules under mild conditions.

Striking solvent dependence of total emission and circularly polarised luminescence in coordinatively saturated chiral europium complexes: solvation significantly perturbs the ligand field.

Examination of total emission and circularly polarised luminescence (CPL) spectra of three 9-coordinate Eu(iii) complexes with well-defined speciation shows that the ligand fields of these C3 symmetric complexes are extremely sensitive to solvent polarity, even when solvent is not present in the first coordination sphere. The energies, intensities, and (for CPL) the sign of some transitions vary with solvent polarity. These observations are rationalised by analysis of the factors that control total and circularly polarised emission, and have important implications for design of responsive luminescent Ln(iii) probes.

Targeted Luminescent Europium Peptide Conjugates: Comparative Analysis Using Maleimide and para-Nitropyridyl Linkages for Organelle Staining.

The syntheses and photophysical behavior of nine strongly luminescent nonadentate Eu(III) complexes are reported. Each complex is based on N-functionalized 1,4,7-triazacyclononane, and linkage to other groups or targeting vectors can occur either via amide bond formation to a coordinated pyridine p-aminopropyl group or via a nucleophilic substitution reaction involving thiol attack on a metal coordinated p-nitropyridyl moiety. Evidence is presented in favor of the latter conjugation strategy, as parallel work with maleimide conjugates was complicated or compromised by the propensity to undergo post-conjugation thiol exchange or succinimide ring hydrolysis reactions. Confocal microscopy and spectral imaging studies revealed that the peptide conjugate of AcCFFKDEL was found to localize selectively in the endoplasmic reticulum of mouse fibroblast cells, whereas the related maleimide conjugate was only observed in cellular lysosomes.

Targeted pH switched europium complexes monitoring receptor internalisation in living cells.

We report the design and evaluation of pH responsive luminescent europium(iii) probes that allow conjugation to targeting vectors to monitor receptor internalisation in cells. The approach adopted here can be used to tag proteins selectively and to monitor uptake into more acidic organelles, thereby enhancing the performance of time-resolved internalisation assays that require pH monitoring in real time.

A family of readily synthesised phosphorescent platinum(ii) complexes based on tridentate N

The synthesis and photophysical properties of 22 platinum(ii) complexes featuring N^N^O-coordinating ligands are described. The complexes have the form Pt(N^N^O-Ln)Cl (n = 1 to 20). The tridentate ligands comprise lateral pyridine and phenolate rings, offering the metal N and O coordination respectively, linked via an imine or hydrazone unit that provides a further, central N atom for coordination. The proligands HLn, some of which have previously been reported for the coordination of 1st row transition metal ions in other contexts, are Schiff bases that are readily synthesised by condensation of salicylaldehydes either with 8-aminoquinoline (to generate imine-based ligands HL1-4) or with 2-hydrazinopyridines (to generate hydrazone-based proligands HL5-20). The Pt(ii) complexes are prepared under mild conditions upon treatment of the proligands with simple Pt(ii) salts. Metathesis of the chloride ligand by an acetylide is possible, as exemplified by the preparation of two further complexes of the form Pt(N^N^O-Ln)(-C[triple bond, length as m-dash]C-Ar), where Ar = 3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl. Nine of the complexes have been characterised in the solid state by X-ray diffraction. The imine-based complexes have intense low-energy absorption bands around 520 nm attributed to charge-transfer transitions. They display deep red phosphorescence in solution at ambient temperature, with λmax in the range 635-735 nm, quantum yields up to 4.6% and lifetimes in the microsecond range. The hydrazone complexes that feature a py-NH-N[double bond, length as m-dash]C-Ar linker display pH-dependent absorption spectra owing to the acidity of the hydrazone NH: these complexes have poor photostability in solution. In contrast, their N-methylated analogues (i.e., py-NMe-N[double bond, length as m-dash]C-Ar) show no evidence of photodecomposition. They are phosphorescent in solution at room temperature in the 600-640 nm region, the emission maximum being influenced by substituents in the phenolate ring. The results show how simply prepared tridentate Schiff base ligands - which offer the metal a combination of 5- and 6-membered chelate rings - can provide access to phosphorescent Pt(ii) complexes that have superior emissive properties to those of terpyridines, for example.