The function and evolution of child-directed communication.

Humans communicate with small children in unusual and highly conspicuous ways (child-directed communication (CDC)), which enhance social bonding and facilitate language acquisition. CDC-like inputs are also reported for some vocally learning animals, suggesting similar functions in facilitating communicative competence. However, adult great apes, our closest living relatives, rarely signal to their infants, implicating communication surrounding the infant as the main input for infant great apes and early humans. Given cross-cultural variation in the amount and structure of CDC, we suggest that child-surrounding communication (CSC) provides essential compensatory input when CDC is less prevalent-a paramount topic for future studies.

A case of intercommunity lethal aggression by chimpanzees in an open and dry landscape, Issa Valley, western Tanzania.

Intercommunity (lethal) aggression is a familiar component of the behavioural repertoire of many forest-dwelling chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) communities. However, until now, the absence of intercommunity attacks - including killings - in communities that live in open, mosaic environments has supported hypotheses of reduced resource competition in drier habitats, and informed referential models of early hominin social dynamics in a similar habitat. In June 2020, we observed the first instance of intercommunity lethal aggression, a male-committed infanticide, by the Issa chimpanzee community, which live in a savannah-mosaic habitat in the Issa Valley, western Tanzania. The carcass was recovered by researchers after it was abandoned by the attackers. Here, we give a detailed account of the events leading up to and including the infanticide, and contextualise our observations with what has been described for other chimpanzee communities. Notably, in contrast to the majority of reported intercommunity infanticides, the infant male victim was castrated (and not cannibalised), making this the youngest reported castration. This observation of intercommunity aggression disproves its hypothesised absence in savannah-dwelling chimpanzees, which by extension, has implications for early hominin evolution. We suggest that the near absence of observations of intercommunity aggression in savannah chimpanzee communities is most likely due to the lack of long-term study communities, and in some cases geographic isolation. We hypothesise that food-rich areas within a habitat with otherwise widely distributed food sources may select for intense intercommunity aggression despite the low population density characteristic of savannah communities. Anecdotes such as this add to the comparative database available on intercommunity killings in chimpanzee society, improving our ability to draw inferences about their evolutionary significance.

Dead-infant carrying by chimpanzee mothers in the Budongo Forest.

It has been suggested that non-human primates can respond to deceased conspecifics in ways that suggest they experience psychological states not unlike humans, some of which could indicate they exhibit a notion of death. Here, we report long-term demographic data from two East African chimpanzee groups. During a combined 40-year observation period, we recorded 191 births of which 68 died in infancy, mostly within the first year. We documented the post-mortem behaviour of the mothers and describe nine occasions where Budongo chimpanzee mothers carried infants for 1-3 days after their death, usually until the body started to decompose. We also observed three additional cases of extended carrying lasting for more than 2 weeks, one of which was followed by the unusual extended carrying of an object and another which lasted 3 months. In each case, the corpses mummified. In addition, we report four instances of recurring dead-infant carrying by mothers, three of whom carried the corpse for longer during the second instance. We discuss these observations in view of functional hypotheses of dead-infant carrying in primates and the potential proximate mechanisms involved in this behaviour.

Orangutans have larger gestural repertoires in captivity than in the wild-A case of weak innovation?

Whether nonhuman species can change their communicative repertoire in response to socio-ecological environments has critical implications for communicative innovativeness prior to the emergence of human language, with its unparalleled productivity. Here, we use a comparative sample of wild and zoo-housed orangutans of two species (Pongo abelii, Pongo pygmaeus) to assess the effect of the wild-captive contrast on repertoires of gestures and facial expressions. We find that repertoires on both the individual and population levels are larger in captive than in wild settings, regardless of species, age class, or sampling effort. In the more sociable Sumatran species, dominant use of signals toward single outcomes was also higher in captive settings. We thus conclude that orangutans exposed to more sociable and terrestrial conditions evince behavioral plasticity, in that they produce additional innate or innovated signals that are highly functionally specific. These findings suggest a latent capacity for innovativeness in these apes' communicative repertoires.

Multicomponent and multisensory communicative acts in orang-utans may serve different functions.

From early infancy, human face-to-face communication is multimodal, comprising a plethora of interlinked communicative and sensory modalities. Although there is also growing evidence for this in nonhuman primates, previous research rarely disentangled production from perception of signals. Consequently, the functions of integrating articulators (i.e. production organs involved in multicomponent acts) and sensory channels (i.e. modalities involved in multisensory acts) remain poorly understood. Here, we studied close-range social interactions within and beyond mother-infant pairs of Bornean and Sumatran orang-utans living in wild and captive settings, to examine use of and responses to multicomponent and multisensory communication. From the perspective of production, results showed that multicomponent acts were used more than the respective unicomponent acts when the presumed goal did not match the dominant outcome for a specific communicative act, and were more common among non-mother-infant dyads and Sumatran orang-utans. From the perception perspective, we found that multisensory acts were more effective than the respective unisensory acts, and were used more in wild compared to captive populations. We argue that multisensory acts primarily facilitate effectiveness, whereas multicomponent acts become relevant when interaction outcomes are less predictable. These different functions underscore the importance of distinguishing between production and perception in studies of communication.