Venlafaxine reduces the striatal il6/il10 ratio and increases hippocampal GR expression in female mice subjected to chronic social instability stress.

Women are twice as likely as men to develop depression and antidepressant treatment is more frequent in females. Moreover, neuroinflammatory changes related to affective disorders differ in accordance with sex. Despite this evidence, female populations have been largely omitted from preclinical experiments studying antidepressants. The aim of this work is to analyze the potential restorative effect of venlafaxine on an animal model of depression. Female CD1 mice were subjected to chronic social instability (CSI) stress for 7 weeks, and were administered venlafaxine during the last 3 weeks of the stress period. Behavioral and physiological parameters were then analyzed. Stressed mice showed a decreased sucrose preference and increased whisking behavior, and had a lower body weight, higher plasma corticosterone levels and increased hypothalamic GR expression. They also had lower levels of 5-HT, 5-HIAA and NA and a higher KYN/TRYP ratio in the hippocampus. Moreover, CSI increased striatal IL-6 mRNA expression levels. Venlafaxine treatment reduced the striatal IL-6/IL-10 ratio and increased hippocampal GR expression, although it did not reverse stress-induced behavioral changes. In conclusion, seven weeks of exposure to CSI produced depressive-like alterations in female mice. The venlafaxine treatment regimen was found to have a modest anti-inflammatory effect in the striatum and increased hippocampal GR mRNA, although it failed to redress stress-induced behavioral disturbances.

Early life stress by repeated maternal separation induces long-term neuroinflammatory response in glial cells of male rats.

Childhood maltreatment and neglect lead to a wide range of mental disorders highlighted by hormone and immune alterations in neglected children. This social-health challenge has led to the creation of early stress models such as maternal separation (MS) in rodents. We performed a MS model (4 h per day, 21 days; n = 16 MS and n = 16 control), and then measured three parameters in adult male rat brains, in order to look for long-term effects of early life stress. We used immunocytochemistry to mark glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive cells, which indicates changes in astroglia, and ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1)-positive cells, which inform about reactive microglia. In order to study mRNA levels of some immune mediators, interleukin determination (interleukin-6, IL-6; tumor necrosis factor, TNFα) mRNAs were evaluated by real-time polymerase chain reaction (rt-PCR) in discrete brain regions. Measurements of numbers of GFAP-positive cells, and expression of Iba-1, IL-6 and TNFα mRNAs were performed in prefrontal cortex (PFC): cingulate cortex (CG), prelimbic cortex (PL) and infralimbic cortex (IL), striatal areas (dorsal striatum, STD; and nucleus accumbens, ACC), and dorsal hippocampus (HC: CA1, CA3 and dentate gyrus (DG)). We found that MS produces a dramatic and sustained decrease in the astroglial population in all the areas measured (from -25% in CA1 to -85.7% in ACC), whereas increased numbers of microglia were found, in more restricted regions: STD (72.6%), ACC (31%) and CA3 (33.3%) areas. Regarding mRNA measurements, we found increased IL-6 mRNA expression in HC (104.2%), and after MS.

Coping with chronic social stress in mice: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal/ sympathetic-adrenal-medullary axis activity, behavioral changes and effects of antalarmin treatment: implications for the study of stress-related psychopathologies.

The aim of this study was to analyze the individual differences that lead to the development of psychopathological changes in response to chronic social stress. We also assessed the ability of an antagonist of the corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) receptors to reverse the effects of stress. Male adult mice were exposed to repeated defeat experiences for 21 days using a sensorial contact model. After 18 days of defeat, two groups of subjects were established (active and passive), according to their behaviors during social confrontation. Antalarmin treatment was given for 4 and 6 days. The results corroborated previous data indicating that subjects who adopted a passive coping strategy had higher corticosterone levels after 21 days of defeat and decreased resting levels 3 days later. Moreover, they showed higher resting expression levels of hypothalamic CRH than their active counterparts. On day 24, the experimental animals were subjected to another social defeat to determine whether the stress response remained. The increase in corticosterone and hypothalamic CRH levels was similar for all of the stressed subjects, but the passive subjects also had a greater CRH response in the amygdala. Passive subjects had decreased levels of adrenal dopamine ß-hydroxylase, tyrosine hydroxylase and plasma adrenaline compared to the active subjects, and lower plasma noradrenaline levels than manipulated controls. The passive profile of physiological changes in both the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) axes has been associated with changes related to mood disorders, such as posttraumatic stress disorder and depression. The active coping profile is characterized by similar corticosterone resting levels to controls and increased SAM activity. Both profiles showed alterations in the novel palatable and forced swimming tests, with the passive profile being the most vulnerable to the effects of stress in this last test. Pharmacological treatment with antalarmin failed to reverse the effects of stress.

The role of sociability in social instability stress: Behavioral, neuroendocrine and monoaminergic effects.

Extensive literature has reported a link between social stress and mental health. In this complex relationship, individual strategies for coping with social stress are thought to have a possible modulating effect, with sociability being a key factor. Despite the higher incidence of affective disorders in females and sex-related neurochemical differences, female populations have been understudied. The aim of the present study was, therefore, to analyze the behavioral, neuroendocrine, and neurochemical effects of stress in female OF1 mice, paying special attention to social connectedness (female mice with high vs low sociability). To this end, subjects were exposed to the Chronic Social Instability Stress (CSIS) model for four weeks. Although female mice exposed to CSIS had increased arousal, there was no evidence of depressive-like behavior. Neither did exposure to CSIS affect corticosterone levels, although it did increase the MR/GR ratio by decreasing GR expression. Female mice exposed to CSIS had higher noradrenaline and dopamine levels in the hippocampus and striatum respectively, with a lower monoaminergic turnover, resulting in an increased arousal. CSIS increased serotonin levels in both the hippocampus and striatum. Similarly, CSIS was found to reduce kynurenic acid, 3-HK, and IDO and iNOS enzyme levels in the hippocampus. Interestingly, the observed decrease in IDO synthesis and the increased serotonin and dopamine levels in the striatum were only found in subjects with high sociability. These highly sociable female mice also had significantly lower levels of noradrenaline in the striatum after CSIS application. Overall, our model has produced neuroendocrine and neurochemical but not behavioral changes, so it has not allowed us to study sociability in depth. Therefore, a model that induces both molecular and behavioral phenotypes should be applied to determine the role of sociability.

Individual differences in chronically defeated male mice: behavioral, endocrine, immune, and neurotrophic changes as markers of vulnerability to the effects of stress.

This study aimed to analyze different behavioral profiles in response to chronic social defeat using the sensorial contact model. We hypothesized that a passive profile, unlike an active one, would be associated with behavioral and physiological characteristics related to depression. Six-week-old OF1 male mice were subjected to defeat for 21 consecutive days. A combination of cluster and discriminant analyses of the behavior exhibited during confrontation on Day 21 established two behavioral profiles: active (n = 22) and passive (n = 34). Passive mice, with a high level of immobility and low non-social exploration, had higher plasma corticosterone concentrations than active mice after 21 days of defeat. Three days after the last defeat, passive mice had lower corticosterone levels than manipulated-control mice (n = 11). Higher levels of interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in the spleen and lower hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels were observed in passive mice in comparison with those in active mice and the manipulated controls. The only differences observed in active mice in relation to the manipulated control were higher plasma corticosterone (Day 21) and TNF-α levels. The results show that different behavioral profiles in response to chronic defeat are associated with different physiological profiles, and that the passive profile presents physiological characteristics previously associated with depression.

Behavioral coping strategies predict tumor development and behavioral impairment after chronic social stress in mice.

The aims of this study were to identify behavioral strategies to cope with social defeat, evaluate their impact on tumor development and analyze the contributions of both to changes in physiology and behavior produced by chronic defeat stress. For this purpose, OF1 mice were inoculated with B16F10 melanoma cells and subjected to 18 days of repeated defeat stress in the presence of a resident selected for consistent levels of aggression. Combined cluster and discriminant analyses of behavior that manifested during the first social interaction identified three types of behavioral profiles: active/aggressive (AA), passive/reactive (PR) and an intermediate active/non-aggressive (ANA) profile. Animals that showed a PR coping strategy developed more pulmonary metastases at the end of the social stress period than animals in other groups. The ANA but not AA group also showed higher tumor metastases than non-stressed subjects. In addition, the ANA group differed from the other groups because it displayed the highest corticosterone levels after the first interaction. Chronic stress reduced sucrose consumption, which indicates anhedonia, in all the stressed groups. However, the PR subjects exhibited a longer immobility time and swam for less time than other subjects in the forced swim test (FST), and they travelled a shorter distance in the open field test (OFT). In this test, the ANA group also travelled smaller distances than the non-stressed group, but the difference was more moderate. In contrast, tumor development but not stress increased behaviors associated with anxiety in the OFT (e.g., time in the center) in all tumor-bearing subjects. In summary, although the effects of social stress and tumor development on behavior were rather moderate, the results indicate the importance of behavioral coping strategies in modulating the effects of chronic stress on health.

Sex-Specific Effects of Early Life Stress on Brain Mitochondrial Function, Monoamine Levels and Neuroinflammation.

Sex differences have been reported in the susceptibility to early life stress and its neurobiological correlates in humans and experimental animals. However, most of the current research with animal models of early stress has been performed mainly in males. In the present study, prolonged maternal separation (MS) paradigm was applied as an animal model to resemble the effects of adverse early experiences in male and female rats. Regional brain mitochondrial function, monoaminergic activity, and neuroinflammation were evaluated as adults. Mitochondrial energy metabolism was greatly decreased in MS females as compared with MS males in the prefrontal cortex, dorsal hippocampus, and the nucleus accumbens shell. In addition, MS males had lower serotonin levels and increased serotonin turnover in the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus. However, MS females showed increased dopamine turnover in the prefrontal cortex and increased norepinephrine turnover in the striatum, but decreased dopamine turnover in the hippocampus. Sex differences were also found for pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, with increased levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of MS males, and increased IL-6 levels in the striatum of MS females. These results evidence the complex sex- and brain region-specific long-term consequences of early life stress.

Active and Passive Coping Strategies: Comparing Psychological Distress, Cortisol, and Proinflammatory Cytokine Levels in Breast Cancer Survivors.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer survivors can experience psychological distress, such as anxiety and depression, long after treatment has ended, and the development of such negative affective states has been related to the coping strategy used. OBJECTIVES: This pilot study aims to determine whether different coping strategies are associated with differences in psychological distress, cortisol, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-a) levels in breast cancer survivors. METHODS: 54 breast cancer survivors completed the Stress Coping Questionnaire and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and provided a blood sample for cortisol and proinflammatory cytokine measures. FINDINGS: Passive coping strategies were associated with higher psychological distress, cortisol, and TNF-a levels. The passive group had more avoidance and negative self-targeting and less positive reappraisal and focusing on a problem's solution.

Neurobehavioral dysfunction in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis is associated with hyperammonemia, gut dysbiosis, and metabolic and functional brain regional deficits.

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is one of the most prevalent diseases worldwide. While it has been suggested to cause nervous impairment, its neurophysiological basis remains unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study is to unravel the effects of NASH, through the interrelationship of liver, gut microbiota, and nervous system, on the brain and human behavior. To this end, 40 Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into a control group that received normal chow and a NASH group that received a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet. Our results show that 14 weeks of the high-fat, high-cholesterol diet induced clinical conditions such as NASH, including steatosis and increased levels of ammonia. Rats in the NASH group also demonstrated evidence of gut dysbiosis and decreased levels of short-chain fatty acids in the gut. This may explain the deficits in cognitive ability observed in the NASH group, including their depressive-like behavior and short-term memory impairment characterized in part by deficits in social recognition and prefrontal cortex-dependent spatial working memory. We also reported the impact of this NASH-like condition on metabolic and functional processes. Brain tissue demonstrated lower levels of metabolic brain activity in the prefrontal cortex, thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and mammillary bodies, accompanied by a decrease in dopamine levels in the prefrontal cortex and cerebellum and a decrease in noradrenalin in the striatum. In this article, we emphasize the important role of ammonia and gut-derived bacterial toxins in liver-gut-brain neurodegeneration and discuss the metabolic and functional brain regional deficits and behavioral impairments in NASH.

Reduced hippocampal IL-10 expression, altered monoaminergic activity and anxiety and depressive-like behavior in female mice subjected to chronic social instability stress.

Evidence indicates that release of pro-inflammatory cytokines induced by social stress contributes to affective disorders. Additionally, there are known sex differences in both the stress response and the stressors that can elicit this response. In this regard, the chronic social instability (CSI) rodent model of stress appears to be the best fit for the social nature of females. This study analyzed the effects of CSI on female mouse behavior, hippocampal cytokine expression, tryptophan metabolism and monoaminergic activity. The activity of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes were also measured. Results showed a decrease in sucrose consumption in stressed subjects, indicative of anhedonic behavior and an increase in climbing activity in the forced swimming test (FST) and in whisking behavior, which have been associated with anxiety. Decreased interleukin-10 (IL-10) expression was found in the hippocampus of the stressed mice, while no differences in pro-inflammatory cytokine expression and tryptophan (TRYP), kynurenine (KYN) or 3-hydroxy kynurenine (3-HK) levels were found. Increased hippocampal serotoninergic and noradrenergic activity was observed in stressed mice. The higher plasma corticosterone and lower hypothalamic glucocorticoid receptor (GR) expression levels showed an increase in HPA activity after CSI. No differences were found in the plasma estradiol levels or the central estrogen receptors (ERα and ERß) expression levels. These data indicate that the CSI stress-induced behavioral and physiological changes associated with anxiety and depressive disorders. Although additional studies are warranted, the results suggest an involvement of anti-inflammatory cytokines in the biobehavioral effects of social stress in female mice.

Main target of minimal hepatic encephalopathy: Morphophysiological, inflammatory and metabolic view.

Although often not considered clinically relevant and, therefore, not diagnosed or treated, minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE) has been shown to affect daily functioning, quality of life, driving and overall mortality. To discover early impairments involved in MHE, we studied one of its precipitating factors, portal hypertension. Rats were trained on a stimulus-response task using the Morris water maze. Two groups of animals were used: a SHAM (sham-operated) group (n= 13) and a portal hypertension (PH) group (n= 13). The triple portal vein ligation method was used to create an animal model of an early developmental phase of HE. Brain metabolic activity was studied with cytochrome c-oxidase histochemistry (C.O.). Neuronal nuclear volume was assessed by nucleator probe; the number of glial fibrillary acidic protein-immunoreactive astrocytes (GFAP-IR) and proinflammatory mediators was measured. The results revealed that the PH group was not able to reach the behavioural criterion, in contrast to the SHAM group. The metabolic brain consumption revealed decreased C.O. activity in the ventral striatum. The PH group showed lower density of GFAP-IR and an increase in the tumour necrotic factor-α (TNF-α). The PH group showed decreased neuronal nuclear volume in the dorsal striatum. On the contrary, increased neuronal nuclear volume was found in the ventral striatum. For the first time, a relationship has been established between inflammation, astrocytic and neural damage, and brain metabolic impairment in a model of MHE. Disruption of the striatum and related structures was highlighted as the main target in early stages of HE. Finally, a simple task was presented to assess the subtle impairments found in the clinic, which could provide fresh insights into the development of new tools for the assessment of MHE.

Melanoma tumors alter proinflammatory cytokine production and monoamine brain function, and induce depressive-like behavior in male mice.

Depression is a commonly observed disorder among cancer patients; however, the mechanisms underlying the relationship between these disorders are not well known. We used an animal model to study the effects of tumor development on depressive-like behavior manifestation, proinflammatory cytokine expression, and central monoaminergic activity. Male OF1 mice were inoculated with B16F10 melanoma tumor cells and subjected to a 21-day behavioral evaluation comprising the novel palatable food (NPF) test and tail suspension test (TST). The mRNA expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines, interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), were measured in the hypothalamus and hippocampus and the levels of IL-6 and TNF-α were measured in the blood plasma. We similarly determined the monoamine turnover in various brain areas. The tumors resulted in increasing the immobility in TST and the expression level of IL-6 in the hippocampus. These increases corresponded with a decrease in dopaminergic activity in the striatum and a decrease in serotonin turnover in the prefrontal cortex. Similarly, a high level of tumor development produced increases in the brain expression levels of IL-6 and TNF-α and plasma levels of IL-6. Our findings suggest that these alterations in inflammatory cytokines and monoaminergic system function might be responsible for the manifestation of depressive-like behaviors in tumor-bearing mice.

Effects of a putative antidepressant with a rapid onset of action in defeated mice with different coping strategies.

There is evidence suggesting that stressful social events may result in depressive-like disorders, but the development of these disorders depend on the way in which people cope with stress. Although antidepressants are useful their drawback is a delay in the therapeutic effects, moreover not all the patients show an adequate response to this treatment. The aim of this study was to analyse the effect of RS 67333, which is a 5-HT(4) receptor partial agonist and a putative antidepressant which exhibits a rapid onset of action and to determine whether this drug reverses the behavioural and physiological effects that are generated by chronic defeat in subjects who manifest a more vulnerable profile in their response to stress. Male mice were exposed to defeat for 21 consecutive days using a sensorial contact model. After 18 days of defeat, 2 groups of subjects were established, active and passive, in accordance with the behaviour that was manifested during social confrontation, and drug treatment was initiated for 5 days. Finally, the animals were subjected to a forced swimming test (FST). The results revealed higher corticosterone levels in passive mice after the last defeat. Additionally, 3 days after the last defeat, they showed lower corticosterone levels and higher splenic IL-6 and TNF-α levels and hypothalamic GR mRNA levels when compared to their active and manipulated control counterparts. Passive mice had higher 5-HT(1A) receptor mRNA levels than the manipulated controls and a lower MR/GR ratio than active mice. Similar to stress, the drug increased hypothalamic GR mRNA levels, but it did not affect other measured physiological variables or social behaviour, which suggested that the mechanism of this drug is not the most adequate for reversing stress-induced effects in this model. Nevertheless, the treatment increased swimming and decreased immobility in the FST, suggesting an antidepressant potential for this drug.