A SAXS-based ensemble model of the native and phosphorylated regulatory domain of the CFTR.

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), the defective protein in cystic fibrosis, is an anion channel activated by protein kinase A phosphorylation. The regulatory domain (RD) of CFTR has multiple phosphorylation sites, and is responsible for channel activation. This domain is intrinsically disordered, rendering the structural analysis a difficult task, as high-resolution techniques are barely applicable. In this work, we obtained a biophysical characterization of the native and phosphorylated RD in solution by employing complementary structural methods. The native RD has a gyration radius of 3.25 nm, and a maximum molecular dimension of 11.4 nm, larger than expected for a globular protein of the same molecular mass. Phosphorylation causes compaction of the structure, yielding a significant reduction of the gyration radius, to 2.92 nm, and on the maximum molecular dimension to 10.2 nm. Using an ensemble optimization method, we were able to generate a low-resolution, three-dimensional model of the native and the phosphorylated RD based on small-angle X-ray scattering data. We have obtained the first experiment-based model of the CFTR regulatory domain, which will be useful to understand the molecular mechanisms of normal and pathological CFTR functioning.

A potentiator induces conformational changes on the recombinant CFTR nucleotide binding domains in solution.

Nucleotide binding domains (NBD1 and NBD2) of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), the defective protein in cystic fibrosis, are responsible for controlling the gating of the chloride channel and are the putative binding sites for several candidate drugs in the disease treatment. We studied the effects of the application of 2-pyrimidin-7,8-benzoflavone (PBF), a strong potentiator of the CFTR, on the properties of recombinant and equimolar NBD1/NBD2 mixture in solution. The results indicate that the potentiator induces significant conformational changes of the NBD1/NBD2 dimer in solution. The potentiator does not modify the ATP binding constant, but reduces the ATP hydrolysis activity of the NBD1/NBD2 mixture. The intrinsic fluorescence and the guanidinium denaturation measurements indicate that the potentiator induces different conformational changes on the NBD1/NBD2 mixture in the presence and absence of ATP. It was confirmed from small-angle X-ray scattering experiments that, in absence of ATP, the NBD1/NBD2 dimer was disrupted by the potentiator, but in the presence of 2 mM ATP, the two NBDs kept dimerised, and a major change in the size and the shape of the structure was observed. We propose that these conformational changes could modify the NBDs-intracellular loop interaction in a way that would facilitate the open state of the channel.

Thermodynamic study of the native and phosphorylated regulatory domain of the CFTR.

The regulatory domain (RD) of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), the defective protein in cystic fibrosis, is the region of the channel that regulates the CFTR activity with multiple phosphorylation sites. This domain is an intrinsically disordered protein, characterized by lack of stable or unique tertiary structure. The disordered character of a protein is directly correlated with its function. The flexibility of RD may be important for its regulatory role: the continuous conformational change may be necessary for the progressive phosphorylation, and thus activation, of the channel. However, the lack of a defined and stable structure results in a considerable limitation when trying to in build a unique molecular model for the RD. Moreover, several evidences indicate significant structural differences between the native, non-phosphorylated state, and the multiple phosphorylated state of the protein. The aim of our work is to provide data to describe the conformations and the thermodynamic properties in these two functional states of RD. We have done the circular dichroism (CD) spectra in samples with a different degree of phosphorylation, from the non-phosphorylated state to a bona fide completely phosphorylated state. Analysis of CD spectra showed that the random coil and ß-sheets secondary structure decreased with the polypeptide phosphorylation, at expenses of an increase of α-helix. This observation lead to interpret phosphorylation as a mechanism favoring a more structured state. We also studied the thermal denaturation curves of the protein in the two conditions, monitoring the changes of the mean residue ellipticity measured at 222 nm as a function of temperature, between 20 and 95 °C. The thermodynamic analysis of the denaturation curves shows that phosphorylation of the protein induces a state of lower stability of R domain, characterized by a lower transition temperature, and by a smaller Gibbs free energy difference between the native and the unfolded states.

Small-angle X-ray scattering study of the ATP modulation of the structural features of the nucleotide binding domains of the CFTR in solution.

Nucleotide binding domains (NBD1 and NBD2) of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance (CFTR), the defective protein in cystic fibrosis, are responsible for controlling the gating of the chloride channel and are the putative binding site for several candidate drugs in the disease treatment. We studied the structural properties of recombinant NBD1, NBD2, and an equimolar NBD1/NBD2 mixture in solution by small-angle X-ray scattering. We demonstrated that NBD1 or NBD2 alone have an overall structure similar to that observed for crystals. Application of 2 mM ATP induces a dimerization of NBD1 but does not modify the NBD2 monomeric conformation. An equimolar mixture of NBD1/NBD2 in solution shows a dimeric conformation, and the application of ATP to the solution causes a conformational change in the NBD1/NBD2 complex into a tight heterodimer. We hypothesize that a similar conformation change occurs in situ and that transition is part of the gating mechanism. To our knowledge, this is the first direct observation of a conformational change of the NBD1/NBD2 interaction by ATP. This information may be useful to understand the physiopathology of cystic fibrosis.

Quinazolinedione SIRT6 inhibitors sensitize cancer cells to chemotherapeutics.

The NAD(+)-dependent sirtuin SIRT6 is highly expressed in human breast, prostate, and skin cancer where it mediates resistance to cytotoxic agents and prevents differentiation. Thus, SIRT6 is an attractive target for the development of new anticancer agents to be used alone or in combination with chemo- or radiotherapy. Here we report on the identification of novel quinazolinedione compounds with inhibitory activity on SIRT6. As predicted based on SIRT6's biological functions, the identified new SIRT6 inhibitors increase histone H3 lysine 9 acetylation, reduce TNF-α production and increase glucose uptake in cultured cells. In addition, these compounds exacerbate DNA damage and cell death in response to the PARP inhibitor olaparib in BRCA2-deficient Capan-1 cells and cooperate with gemcitabine to the killing of pancreatic cancer cells. In conclusion, new SIRT6 inhibitors with a quinazolinedione-based structure have been identified which are active in cells and could potentially find applications in cancer treatment.

Discovery of novel and selective SIRT6 inhibitors.

SIRT6 is an NAD(+)-dependent deacetylase with a role in the transcriptional control of metabolism and aging but also in genome stability and inflammation. Broad therapeutic applications are foreseen for SIRT6 inhibitors, including uses in diabetes, immune-mediated disorders, and cancer. Here we report on the identification of the first selective SIRT6 inhibitors by in silico screening. The most promising leads show micromolar IC50s, have significant selectivity for SIRT6 versus SIRT1 and SIRT2, and are active in cells, as shown by increased acetylation at SIRT6 target lysines on histone 3, reduced TNF-α secretion, GLUT-1 upregulation, and increased glucose uptake. Taken together, these results show the value of these compounds as starting leads for the development of new SIRT6-targeting therapeutic agents.