Evaluation of field and laboratory protocols used to detect avian influenza viruses in wild aquatic birds.

Careful selection and observance of standard field and laboratory protocols are critical for successful detection and characterization of avian influenza viruses (AIV) from wild birds. Cloacal swabs were collected from hunter-killed or nesting waterfowl and shorebirds from wildlife refuges in Alabama, Georgia, and Florida during 2006 to 2008. Swab samples were inoculated into embryonated eggs followed by hemagglutination (HA) test to determine the presence of hemagglutinating agents. Antigen capture-ELISA (AC-ELISA) and real-time reverse transcription-PCR (RRT-PCR) were used to detect AIV from both allantoic fluids (AF) and swab specimens of HA-positive samples. Hemagglutination inhibition test was used to detect Newcastle disease virus, another hemagglutinating virus common in wild birds. The HA-positive AF were sent to the National Veterinary Services Laboratory for subtyping of the isolates. Out of 825 samples tested, 19 AIV and 3 avian paramyxovirus subtypes were identified by the National Veterinary Services Laboratory. Without egg passage, AC-ELISA did not detect virus, whereas matrix gene of 13 AIV were detected using RRT-PCR. When testing was done on AF, 14 were positive for influenza A by AC-ELISA and 20 by RRT-PCR. Antigen capture-ELISA did not detect influenza A when the HA titer was lower than 125, whereas RRT-PCR detected AIV from AF with HA titer as low as 4. The highest isolation rate was from Florida, where out of 109 samples analyzed, 14 AIV were detected by RRT-PCR from AF. Real-time reverse transcription-PCR was more sensitive, specific, and cost-effective than AC-ELISA. However, to avoid false-negative results, testing should be performed on AF and not directly from cloacal swabs. Our procedures to detect AIV directly from cloacal swabs need further optimization for improved sensitivity.

Detection and characterization of avian influenza and other avian paramyxoviruses from wild waterfowl in parts of the southeastern United States.

Cloacal swabs were taken from migratory hunter-killed, nonmigratory, nesting waterfowl and migratory shorebirds from wildlife refuges in Alabama, Georgia, and Florida during 2006 to 2008. Samples were processed in embryonated eggs followed by hemagglutination (HA), Directigen, and real-time reverse transcription-PCR tests. Sequence analysis of the hemagglutinin (H) gene of the H10N7 Alabama isolate revealed that it was closely related (98%) to recent isolates from Delaware and Canada, but only 90% related to an H10N7 isolated 30 yr ago. Four isolates had 94 to 97% similarity to published H1N1 isolates including one from swine. No H5 or H7 isolates were found. One sample was highly pathogenic in embryos, produced a high HA titer, and was positive for both avian influenza (AIV) and Newcastle disease virus or avian paramyxovirus (APMV)-1. In recent (2008) sampling, more (14%) AIV, APMV, or both were isolated than in 2006 to 2007 (1% isolation rate). The higher isolation rate during 2008 may be attributed to optimized sample collection, storage in dry ice, new egg incubator, healthier eggs, time or habitat for isolation, species sampled, migratory status of birds, and more experience with detection procedures. An additional egg passage resulted in increased viral titer; however, no HA-negative samples became HA positive. The chance of transmission of APMV or low-nonpathogenic AIV from wild waterfowl to commercial poultry is possible. However, the chance of transmission of H5 or H7 AIV isolates from waterfowl to commercial farms in Alabama, Georgia, or Florida is unlikely. Therefore, continual testing of these birds is justified to ensure that H5 or H7 AIV are not transmitted to commercial poultry.

Molecular and phenotypic characterization of infectious bursal disease virus isolates.

Two infectious bursal disease viruses (IBDVs 1174 and V1) were isolated from IBDV-vaccinated broiler flocks in California and Georgia. These flocks had a history of subclinical immunosuppression. These isolates are commonly used in IBDV progeny challenge studies at Auburn, AL, as well as vaccine manufacturer's vaccine efficacy studies, because they come from populated poultry-producing states, and are requested by poultry veterinarians from those states. Nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) generated viral genome products for sequencing. A 491-bp segment from the VP2 gene, covering the hypervariable region, from each isolate was analyzed and compared with previously sequenced isolates. Sequence analysis showed that they were more closely related to the Delaware (Del) E antigenic variant than they are to the Animal Health Plant Inspection Service (APHIS) standard, both at the nucleotide level (96%, 97%) and at the amino acid level (94%, 97%). Both isolates had the glutamine to lysine shift in amino acid 249 which has been reported to be critical in binding the virus neutralizing Mab B69. Phenotypic studies showed that both isolates produced rapid atrophy of the bursae and weight loss, without the edematous bursal phase, in 2-wk-old commercial broilers having antibody against IBDV. A progeny challenge study showed both isolates produced more atrophy of the bursae (less percentage of protection) than the Del E isolate. Molecular and phenotypic data of these important IBDV isolates help in the improved detection and control of this continually changing and important viral pathogen of chickens.

Yeast-derived sigma C protein-induced immunity against avian reovirus.

Avian reoviruses (ARVs) can result in disease and economic losses in the poultry industry. Vaccines against ARV may not provide full protection and can cause adverse reactions. The coding sequence of the sigma C protein from strain S1133 of avian reovirus was expressed in Schizasaccharomyces pombe. Sigma C protein expression was demonstrated by Western blotting, and the protein was evaluated for its ability to protect specific-pathogen-free (SPF) chickens against challenge with the virulent S1133 strain. Serologic and challenge-infection data showed the efficacy of the recombinant vaccine administered orally each week for 3 consecutive wk. Sigma C protein induced antibody, as determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Percentage (%) protection induced by the low dose (125 microg purified yeast-expressed sigma C protein/chicken) or the high dose (250 microg purified yeast-expressed sigma C protein/chicken) was 64 and 91, respectively. The commercial vaccine administered once or twice provided 82% protection. Results supported the feasibility of a plant-derived vaccine for use in poultry immunization schemes.

Amplification, cloning and sequencing of the sigmaC-encoded gene of avian reovirus.

The sigmaC-encoding cDNA of avian reovirus (ARV) 1733 strain was amplified, cloned and sequenced using double nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The ARV sigmaC protein is a minor component of the outer capsid that induces type-specific neutralization antibodies. Four overlapping sigmaC-encoding cDNA fragments were obtained. Together, the four fragments represented the whole coding sequence. The nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of sigmaC-encoded gene of U.S. (S1133 and 1733) and Australian isolates (RAM-1 and SOM-4) were compared. The U.S. isolates were closely related, but different from Australian isolates. The degree of differences between the U.S. and Australian isolates was over 44.89% at both the nucleotide and deduced amino acid levels and suggested that the virus is evolving separately in different continents. The deduced amino acid sequences of ARV sigmaC indicated a heptapeptide repeat in the N-terminal region of ARV sigmaC existed in all ARVs. The results suggested that ARV sigmaC is structurally related to mammalian reovirus (MRV) sigma1.

Detection of genetic variations in serotype I isolates of infectious bursal disease virus using polymerase chain reaction and restriction endonuclease analysis.

Reverse transcription with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by restriction endonuclease analysis detected genetic variations among serotype I isolates of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV). Using a set of synthetic primers derived from the large genome segment of APHIS-IBDV, the hypervariable region (AccI-SpeI fragment) located in the VP2 gene was amplified. With all strains, a cDNA fragment of approximately 643 bp was amplified, indicating that there were no apparent deletions or insertions in this region among isolates. Fragments amplified from 9 isolates were digested with 14 restriction enzymes. Restriction fragment profiles generated by restriction enzymes NaeI, StuI, TaqI, and SacI, showed genetic variations among isolates. This study provided a simple and sensitive method for detection of genetic variations among isolates that are closely related serologically and could not be differentiated using current serologic methods.

Molecular characterization of avian reoviruses using nested PCR and nucleotide sequence analysis.

A nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with subsequent nucleotide sequence analysis identified and differentiated avian reoviruses (ARVs). PCR products amplified from the S1 gene segment of ARV of USA isolates were 738 and 342 bp, respectively. PCR products were conformed by Southern and dot blot hybridizations. The amplified cDNA fragments were cloned into the pUC18 vector and subjected to DNA sequencing. The nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of four USA (S1133, 1733, 2408, and CO8) and two Australian isolates (RAM-1 and SOM-4) were compared. Results of paired difference analysis and a predicted dendrogram revealed that USA isolates were closely related, but different from, Australian isolates. The deduced amino acid sequences of the N-terminal region of ARV sigma C showed a heptapeptide repeat of hydrophobic residues in all ARV isolates.

The use of monoclonal antibody probes for the detection of avian reovirus antigens.

Two monoclonal antibodies (MAb), E9 and H3, prepared against avian reovirus (ARV) S1133, were used in an immuno-dot assay to detect ARV antigens from cell culture and from tendon tissue samples of chickens. The limit of viral antigens detected was 8 ng using both MAb probes. The probes detected 10 ARV isolates representing at least two serotypes or pathotypes. The results indicated that these probes had broad specificity. The probes, however, did not cross-react with viral antigens prepared from six unrelated avian viruses. The ARV antigens in tendon tissue samples were detected by both probes, and it is possible, therefore, to use either of the two MAb probes for detection of ARV infections.

Laboratory evaluation of Newcastle disease vaccination programs for broiler chickens.

Experiments were conducted to examine the efficacy of various commercial vaccination programs for the prevention of Newcastle disease (ND) in broilers. In all, chicks were from breeders vaccinated against ND via drinking water at 75-day intervals. Vaccination was by company personnel on company premises. In Expt. 1, the initial ND vaccination programs tested were vaccination at 1 day by coarse spray with the Spra-Vac machine or by tracheal instillation with the Beak-o-Vac machine, and vaccination at 7 days via drinking water. In Expts. 2-4, birds initially vaccinated via one of the three previously mentioned methods (Spra-Vac in Expt. 2, Beak-o-Vac in Expt. 3, and drinking water in Expt. 4) were revaccinated against ND by either drinking water or coarse spray with one of two commercial portable machines (ULVA Fan or Spray Master). Serologic and challenge data in Expt. 1 indicated that although broilers vaccinated by any of the three initial routes failed to produce measurable antibody to NDV, all methods resulted in protection against NDV challenge at 35 and 49 days. However, resistance to challenge with virulent ND was greatest in birds initially vaccinated by coarse spray with the Spra-Vac machine. Results in Expts. 2-4 indicated that NDV hemagglutination-inhibition titers were highest and resistance to challenge greatest in birds initially vaccinated at day 1 by coarse spray (Spra-Vac) and then revaccinated at 14 days by coarse spray. There were no differences, however, between the portable coarse spray machines in efficacy in reimmunizing broilers against NDV.

Efficacy of coarse-spray administration of a reovirus vaccine in young chickens.

Coarse-spray (CS) administration of a commercial S1133 reovirus vaccine in chickens for prevention of clinical viral tenosynovitis (VT) infection was evaluated. In Expt. 1, one-day-old specific-pathogen-free (SPF) white leghorns were vaccinated with a combination of reovirus, Newcastle disease (ND), and infectious bronchitis (IB) vaccines by CS and infectious bursal disease vaccine by the subcutaneous (SQ) route. In Expt. 2, one-day-old commercial broilers were vaccinated by CS with reovirus vaccine and Marek's disease (MD) vaccine by SQ. In Expt. 3, one-day-old commercial broilers received reovirus vaccine in combination with ND-IB vaccines at 1 day of age by CS and MD vaccine by SQ. Some birds received an initial or second vaccination at 7 days of age by CS or the drinking-water (DW) route. Birds vaccinated by CS at 1 day of age with reovirus vaccine did not produce circulating virus-neutralizing antibody against reovirus, although they had resistance to VT infection. In contrast, initial or booster vaccination at 7 days of age by CS or DW resulted in an antibody response and greater resistance to challenge than did CS vaccination at 1 day of age. There was no difference in efficacy between CS and DW routes at 7 days of age. The reovirus vaccine did not interfere with other vaccines as measured by serologic (ND-IB-IBD) or challenge (MD) studies.

Characterization of a nonradioactive cloned cDNA probe for detecting avian reoviruses.

Avian reoviruses (ARVs) cause important losses in the poultry industry. Improved tests are needed for diagnosis of ARV infections. A cDNA library was prepared from the S1133 isolate of ARV. EcoRI-adaptored cDNA molecules were ligated into the plasmid pUC19 and used to transform Escherichia coli strain DH5 alpha MCR. One cDNA clone was selected and designated HJp1. The HJp1 was labeled by random priming with digoxigenin-dUTP. This cDNA probe hybridized with the S1 gene fragment of the ARV S1133 strain in northern blot hybridization. The probe detected ARV isolates in dot-blot hybridization assays. The probe did not cross-hybridize with nucleic acids extracted from mock-infected chicken embryo fibroblast cells or unrelated avian viruses. Probe HJp1 detected as little as 0.78 ng of ARV RNA.

In situ detection of reovirus in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded chicken tissues using a digoxigenin-labeled cDNA probe.

An in situ hybridization (ISH) technique using a digoxigenin (DIG)-labeled cDNA probe detected avian reovirus (ARV) RNA in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded chicken tissues. Tissues were collected 3 and 10 days following inoculation with the R-2 or the S1133 strain of ARV. The cDNA clone HJp1, located on the S1 gene segment of the ARV S1133 strain, was used to prepare a nonradioactive probe. The ISH assay localized ARV RNA in infected tissues including heart, liver, intestine, pancreas, and tendon. No positive-stained cells occurred in sections from uninfected chickens.

Vaccination of day-old broiler chicks against Newcastle disease and infectious bursal disease using commercial live and/or inactivated vaccines.

Day-old broilers were administered live and/or inactivated vaccines to assess vaccine efficacy against challenge with Newcastle disease (ND) and infectious bursal disease (IBD). Chicks were from commercial breeder pullets vaccinated against ND and IBD using several live vaccine primers followed by an inactivated ND-IBD vaccine at 18 weeks. The most efficacious initial ND-IBD vaccination program was live ND virus by eye drop and live IBD vaccine injected subcutaneously (SQ) followed 2 hours later with inactivated ND-IBD vaccine SQ. The next two most efficacious programs were live vaccine alone and the inactivated vaccine only. Inactivated vaccine given SQ had no adverse effect on live IBD vaccine given 2 hours earlier in a similar site. Administration of inactivated vaccine by vent was not as efficacious as administration SQ. A booster of a second live ND-IBD vaccine drinking water at 18 days significantly increased levels of circulating antibody, regardless of the initial vaccination program.

Digoxigenin-labeled nucleic acid probe for the detection of infectious bursal disease virus in infected cells.

A cDNA probe was synthesized from the VP-4 region of a virulent field isolate of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV). The probe was labeled during synthesis with a non-radioactive steroid hapten, digoxigenin. The probe was used to develop a hybridization assay to detect the presence of IBDV in infected cell-culture and tissue suspensions from the bursa of Fabricius of infected chickens. The test was rapid, reproducible, and sensitive, and it could detect four serologic subtypes of IBDV, including the GLS-5 isolate.

Tissue-print hybridization using a non-radioactive probe for the detection of infectious bursal disease virus.

Tissue-print hybridization was evaluated as a simplified means for detection of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) in the bursa of Fabricius from infected chickens. The assay employed a biotin-labeled synthetic oligonucleotide as a probe. The bound probe was detected using a color assay consisting of streptavidin conjugated to alkaline phosphatase. Bursae were imprinted onto nitrocellulose and then hybridized with the biotinylated probe. Bursal prints from IBDV-infected chickens were readily distinguished from control prints by color development and differences in signal intensity.

Serologic comparison of avian reovirus isolates using virus neutralization and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

The serologic relatedness of six avian reovirus isolates (CO8, S1133, 81-5, 2408, 1733, and UMI 203) were determined using a virus-neutralization (VN) test and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Six groups of 20 specific-pathogen-free broilers each were twice infected with one of the six isolates per group. Serum was reacted against each isolate in a beta VN test in chicken embryo kidney cells and against the S1133 virus in ELISA. Relatedness (R) values, determined by cross VN, revealed that all belonged to a single serotype. However, the CO8 isolate represented a major subtype difference compared with the other isolates. R values among the five other isolates indicated minor or no subtype differences. ELISA also showed major differences between the CO8 and the other isolates.

Efficacy of live vaccines against serologic subtypes of infectious bursal disease virus.

Experiments determined the efficacy of live vaccines in specific-pathogen-free broilers against serologic subtypes of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV). Challenge isolates were the Delmarva variant E, a standard serotype I (APHIS) and a variant isolate from Mississippi. The vaccines were a cloned standard (CS) vaccine (Clone Vac-D78), a cloned variant (CV) vaccine (Bursa Vac IV), and an uncloned standard (UCS) vaccine (Bursine II). The severity of microscopic lesions was correlated with bursal atrophy as measured by bursa-weight-to-body-weight ratios. All vaccines provided adequate protection against the APHIS challenge. The three vaccines averaged 77% protection against APHIS in the first experiment and 78% in the second. Protection against the variant E and Miss isolates was considerably less for all vaccines. The three vaccines produced an average 70% protection against the Miss isolate in the first experiment and 69% in the second experiment. Against the variant E virus, the three vaccines averaged 67% protection in the first experiment and 65% in the second. There were significant differences in protection for each vaccine against individual IBDV subtypes. Results showed that no vaccine provided good protection (at least 80%) against all three subtypes of IBDV.

Effect of breeder vaccination on immunization of progeny against Newcastle disease.

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effect of breeder vaccination program and maternal antibody on the efficacy of Newcastle disease immunization of 1-day-old chicks. Experimental protocol was the same for both. In the first experiment, broilers were from breeders that were 32 weeks old, and in the second experiment, broilers were from breeders 50 weeks old. Breeders received three live Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vaccines and either a killed vaccine at 18 weeks or continual live boosting at 60-to-70-day intervals through lay. Broilers were vaccinated at 1 day of age with a commercial coarse-spray machine; they were bled, sera were examined for antibody against NDV, and broilers were challenged with virulent NDV at 2, 4, and 6 weeks of age. In the first experiment, maternal antibody was higher in chicks from the younger breeders given the inactivated vaccine, and in the second experiment maternal antibody was higher in chicks from older breeders given continual live vaccines. Higher antibody in 1-day-old broilers resulted in fewer vaccine-induced reactions, less vaccine virus shed, and decreased duration of vaccine-induced immunity from coarse-spray vaccination.

Correlation of circulating antibody and cellular immunity with resistance against Cryptosporidium baileyi in broiler chickens.

The correlation of circulating antibody and cell-mediated immunity (CMI) with resistance to Cryptosporidium baileyi was studied using hormonal and chemical bursectomy in the one experiment and cyclosporin A in a second experiment. In Expt. 1, there was no correlation between antibody (confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) and resistance to infection as measured by body weight, gross lesions, morbidity, and mortality. Bursectomy altered antibody production, but not CMI, as measured by the delayed-type hypersensitivity skin reaction. In Expt. 2, cyclosporin A reduced CMI, but not antibody production. Chicks treated with cyclosporin A were more susceptible to C. baileyi (more severe respiratory disease) than untreated controls. Results suggested that CMI is more important in resistance to C. baileyi than circulating antibody.

Comparison of a kinetic-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (KELISA) and virus-neutralization test for infectious bursal disease virus. II. Decay of maternal antibody in progeny from white Leghorns receiving various vaccination regimens.

A computer-assisted single-serum-dilution indirect kinetic-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (KELISA) was used for quantitating the natural decay rate of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) maternal antibody in progeny obtained from white leghorn breeders. The KELISA results were compared with those of a standard virus-neutralization (VN) test. Pullets were subjected to two IBDV immunization regimens. Group 1 was vaccinated at weeks 0, 2, and 10 with two live vaccines in drinking water and at week 20 with an oil-emulsified (SC) IBDV vaccine, group 2 received only the first and last immunizations, and group 3 served as the unvaccinated control. Pullets were artificially inseminated at 28 weeks of age. Progeny chicks from each group were bled every other day for 47 days. Both KELISA and VN test detected linear relationship in the decay of maternal antibodies. The VN test detected no significant differences (P greater than 0.05) in the IBDV maternal antibody titers at day 1 or in the rate of decay between the progeny from groups 1 and 2. The VN maternal antibody titers decreased at a rate of 0.16 log2 titer per day. In contrast, KELISA revealed higher IBDV maternal antibody titers in day-old progeny from pullets vaccinated 4 times (log2 = 14.3). However, KELISA titers of progeny from this group decreased at a faster rate than titers of progeny from pullets vaccinated twice (0.20 vs. 0.13 log2 titer per day).