Detection of phosphates originating from Enceladus's ocean.

Saturn's moon Enceladus harbours a global1 ice-covered water ocean2,3. The Cassini spacecraft investigated the composition of the ocean by analysis of material ejected into space by the moon's cryovolcanic plume4-9. The analysis of salt-rich ice grains by Cassini's Cosmic Dust Analyzer10 enabled inference of major solutes in the ocean water (Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-, CO32-) and its alkaline pH3,11. Phosphorus, the least abundant of the bio-essential elements12-14, has not yet been detected in an ocean beyond Earth. Earlier geochemical modelling studies suggest that phosphate might be scarce in the ocean of Enceladus and other icy ocean worlds15,16. However, more recent modelling of mineral solubilities in Enceladus's ocean indicates that phosphate could be relatively abundant17. Here we present Cassini's Cosmic Dust Analyzer mass spectra of ice grains emitted by Enceladus that show the presence of sodium phosphates. Our observational results, together with laboratory analogue experiments, suggest that phosphorus is readily available in Enceladus's ocean in the form of orthophosphates, with phosphorus concentrations at least 100-fold higher in the moon's plume-forming ocean waters than in Earth's oceans. Furthermore, geochemical experiments and modelling demonstrate that such high phosphate abundances could be achieved in Enceladus and possibly in other icy ocean worlds beyond the primordial CO2 snowline, either at the cold seafloor or in hydrothermal environments with moderate temperatures. In both cases the main driver is probably the higher solubility of calcium phosphate minerals compared with calcium carbonate in moderately alkaline solutions rich in carbonate or bicarbonate ions.

Abundant phosphorus expected for possible life in Enceladus's ocean.

Saturn's moon Enceladus has a potentially habitable subsurface water ocean that contains canonical building blocks of life (organic and inorganic carbon, ammonia, possibly hydrogen sulfide) and chemical energy (disequilibria for methanogenesis). However, its habitability could be strongly affected by the unknown availability of phosphorus (P). Here, we perform thermodynamic and kinetic modeling that simulates P geochemistry based on recent insights into the geochemistry of the ocean-seafloor system on Enceladus. We find that aqueous P should predominantly exist as orthophosphate (e.g., HPO42-), and total dissolved inorganic P could reach 10-7 to 10-2 mol/kg H2O, generally increasing with lower pH and higher dissolved CO2, but also depending upon dissolved ammonia and silica. Levels are much higher than <10-10 mol/kg H2O from previous estimates and close to or higher than ∼10-6 mol/kg H2O in modern Earth seawater. The high P concentration is primarily ascribed to a high (bi)carbonate concentration, which decreases the concentrations of multivalent cations via carbonate mineral formation, allowing phosphate to accumulate. Kinetic modeling of phosphate mineral dissolution suggests that geologically rapid release of P from seafloor weathering of a chondritic rocky core could supply millimoles of total dissolved P per kilogram of H2O within 105 y, much less than the likely age of Enceladus's ocean (108 to 109 y). These results provide further evidence of habitable ocean conditions and show that any oceanic life would not be inhibited by low P availability.

Macromolecular organic compounds from the depths of Enceladus.

Saturn's moon Enceladus harbours a global water ocean 1 , which lies under an ice crust and above a rocky core 2 . Through warm cracks in the crust 3 a cryo-volcanic plume ejects ice grains and vapour into space4-7 that contain materials originating from the ocean8,9. Hydrothermal activity is suspected to occur deep inside the porous core10-12, powered by tidal dissipation 13 . So far, only simple organic compounds with molecular masses mostly below 50 atomic mass units have been observed in plume material6,14,15. Here we report observations of emitted ice grains containing concentrated and complex macromolecular organic material with molecular masses above 200 atomic mass units. The data constrain the macromolecular structure of organics detected in the ice grains and suggest the presence of a thin organic-rich film on top of the oceanic water table, where organic nucleation cores generated by the bursting of bubbles allow the probing of Enceladus' organic inventory in enhanced concentrations.

A Metamorphic Origin for Europa's Ocean.

Europa likely contains an iron-rich metal core. For it to have formed, temperatures within Europa reached ≳ 1250 K. Going up to that temperature, accreted chondritic minerals - for example, carbonates and phyllosilicates - would partially devolatilize. Here, we compute the amounts and compositions of exsolved volatiles. We find that volatiles released from the interior would have carried solutes, redox-sensitive species, and could have generated a carbonic ocean in excess of Europa's present-day hydrosphere, and potentially an early CO 2 atmosphere. No late delivery of cometary water was necessary. Contrasting with prior work, CO 2 could be the most abundant solute in the ocean, followed by Ca 2 + , SO 4 2 - , and HCO 3 - . However, gypsum precipitation going from the seafloor to the ice shell decreases the dissolved S/Cl ratio, such that Cl > S at the shallowest depths, consistent with recently inferred endogenous chlorides at Europa's surface. Gypsum would form a 3-10 km thick sedimentary layer at the seafloor.

Future of the Search for Life: Workshop Report.

The 2-week, virtual Future of the Search for Life science and engineering workshop brought together more than 100 scientists, engineers, and technologists in March and April 2022 to provide their expert opinion on the interconnections between life-detection science and technology. Participants identified the advances in measurement and sampling technologies they believed to be necessary to perform in situ searches for life elsewhere in our Solar System, 20 years or more in the future. Among suggested measurements for these searches, those pertaining to three potential indicators of life termed "dynamic disequilibrium," "catalysis," and "informational polymers" were identified as particularly promising avenues for further exploration. For these three indicators, small breakout groups of participants identified measurement needs and knowledge gaps, along with corresponding constraints on sample handling (acquisition and processing) approaches for a variety of environments on Enceladus, Europa, Mars, and Titan. Despite the diversity of these environments, sample processing approaches all tend to be more complex than those that have been implemented on missions or envisioned for mission concepts to date. The approaches considered by workshop breakout groups progress from nondestructive to destructive measurement techniques, and most involve the need for fluid (especially liquid) sample processing. Sample processing needs were identified as technology gaps. These gaps include technology and associated sampling strategies that allow the preservation of the thermal, mechanical, and chemical integrity of the samples upon acquisition; and to optimize the sample information obtained by operating suites of instruments on common samples. Crucially, the interplay between science-driven life-detection strategies and their technological implementation highlights the need for an unprecedented level of payload integration and extensive collaboration between scientists and engineers, starting from concept formulation through mission deployment of life-detection instruments and sample processing systems.

Investigating Europa's Habitability with the Europa Clipper.

The habitability of Europa is a property within a system, which is driven by a multitude of physical and chemical processes and is defined by many interdependent parameters, so that its full characterization requires collaborative investigation. To explore Europa as an integrated system to yield a complete picture of its habitability, the Europa Clipper mission has three primary science objectives: (1) characterize the ice shell and ocean including their heterogeneity, properties, and the nature of surface-ice-ocean exchange; (2) characterize Europa's composition including any non-ice materials on the surface and in the atmosphere, and any carbon-containing compounds; and (3) characterize Europa's geology including surface features and localities of high science interest. The mission will also address several cross-cutting science topics including the search for any current or recent activity in the form of thermal anomalies and plumes, performing geodetic and radiation measurements, and assessing high-resolution, co-located observations at select sites to provide reconnaissance for a potential future landed mission. Synthesizing the mission's science measurements, as well as incorporating remote observations by Earth-based observatories, the James Webb Space Telescope, and other space-based resources, to constrain Europa's habitability, is a complex task and is guided by the mission's Habitability Assessment Board (HAB).

Exploring the Interior of Europa with the Europa Clipper.

The Galileo mission to Jupiter revealed that Europa is an ocean world. The Galileo magnetometer experiment in particular provided strong evidence for a salty subsurface ocean beneath the ice shell, likely in contact with the rocky core. Within the ice shell and ocean, a number of tectonic and geodynamic processes may operate today or have operated at some point in the past, including solid ice convection, diapirism, subsumption, and interstitial lake formation. The science objectives of the Europa Clipper mission include the characterization of Europa's interior; confirmation of the presence of a subsurface ocean; identification of constraints on the depth to this ocean, and on its salinity and thickness; and determination of processes of material exchange between the surface, ice shell, and ocean. Three broad categories of investigation are planned to interrogate different aspects of the subsurface structure and properties of the ice shell and ocean: magnetic induction, subsurface radar sounding, and tidal deformation. These investigations are supplemented by several auxiliary measurements. Alone, each of these investigations will reveal unique information. Together, the synergy between these investigations will expose the secrets of the Europan interior in unprecedented detail, an essential step in evaluating the habitability of this ocean world.

Science Objectives for Flagship-Class Mission Concepts for the Search for Evidence of Life at Enceladus.

Cassini revealed that Saturn's Moon Enceladus hosts a subsurface ocean that meets the accepted criteria for habitability with bio-essential elements and compounds, liquid water, and energy sources available in the environment. Whether these conditions are sufficiently abundant and collocated to support life remains unknown and cannot be determined from Cassini data. However, thanks to the plume of oceanic material emanating from Enceladus' south pole, a new mission to Enceladus could search for evidence of life without having to descend through kilometers of ice. In this article, we outline the science motivations for such a successor to Cassini, choosing the primary science goal to be determining whether Enceladus is inhabited and assuming a resource level equivalent to NASA's Flagship-class missions. We selected a set of potential biosignature measurements that are complementary and orthogonal to build a robust case for any life detection result. This result would be further informed by quantifications of the habitability of the environment through geochemical and geophysical investigations into the ocean and ice shell crust. This study demonstrates that Enceladus' plume offers an unparalleled opportunity for in situ exploration of an Ocean World and that the planetary science and astrobiology community is well equipped to take full advantage of it in the coming decades.

Effect of copper salts on hydrothermal oxidative decarboxylation: a study of phenylacetic acid.

Decarboxylation of carboxylic acids is favored under hydrothermal conditions, and can be influenced by dissolved metals. Here, we use phenylacetic acid as a model compound to study its hydrothermal decarboxylation in the presence of copper(ii) salts but no O2. Our results showed a strong oxidizing role of copper in facilitating oxidative decarboxylation.

Discriminating Abiotic and Biotic Fingerprints of Amino Acids and Fatty Acids in Ice Grains Relevant to Ocean Worlds.

Identifying and distinguishing between abiotic and biotic signatures of organic molecules such as amino acids and fatty acids is key to the search for life on extraterrestrial ocean worlds. Impact ionization mass spectrometers can potentially achieve this by sampling water ice grains formed from ocean water and ejected by moons such as Enceladus and Europa, thereby exploring the habitability of their subsurface oceans in spacecraft flybys. Here, we extend previous high-sensitivity laser-based analog experiments of biomolecules in pure water to investigate the mass spectra of amino acids and fatty acids at simulated abiotic and biotic relative abundances. To account for the complex background matrix expected to emerge from a salty Enceladean ocean that has been in extensive chemical exchange with a carbonaceous rocky core, other organic and inorganic constituents are added to the biosignature mixtures. We find that both amino acids and fatty acids produce sodiated molecular peaks in salty solutions. Under the soft ionization conditions expected for low-velocity (2-6 km/s) encounters of an orbiting spacecraft with ice grains, the unfragmented molecular spectral signatures of amino acids and fatty acids accurately reflect the original relative abundances of the parent molecules within the source solution, enabling characteristic abiotic and biotic relative abundance patterns to be identified. No critical interferences with other abiotic organic compounds were observed. Detection limits of the investigated biosignatures under Enceladus-like conditions are salinity dependent (decreasing sensitivity with increasing salinity), at the µM or nM level. The survivability and ionization efficiency of large organic molecules during impact ionization appear to be significantly improved when they are protected by a frozen water matrix. We infer from our experimental results that encounter velocities of 4-6 km/s are most appropriate for impact ionization mass spectrometers to detect and discriminate between abiotic and biotic signatures.

Cassini finds molecular hydrogen in the Enceladus plume: Evidence for hydrothermal processes.

Saturn's moon Enceladus has an ice-covered ocean; a plume of material erupts from cracks in the ice. The plume contains chemical signatures of water-rock interaction between the ocean and a rocky core. We used the Ion Neutral Mass Spectrometer onboard the Cassini spacecraft to detect molecular hydrogen in the plume. By using the instrument's open-source mode, background processes of hydrogen production in the instrument were minimized and quantified, enabling the identification of a statistically significant signal of hydrogen native to Enceladus. We find that the most plausible source of this hydrogen is ongoing hydrothermal reactions of rock containing reduced minerals and organic materials. The relatively high hydrogen abundance in the plume signals thermodynamic disequilibrium that favors the formation of methane from CO2 in Enceladus' ocean.

Why O2 is required by complex life on habitable planets and the concept of planetary "oxygenation time".

Life is constructed from a limited toolkit: the Periodic Table. The reduction of oxygen provides the largest free energy release per electron transfer, except for the reduction of fluorine and chlorine. However, the bonding of O2 ensures that it is sufficiently stable to accumulate in a planetary atmosphere, whereas the more weakly bonded halogen gases are far too reactive ever to achieve significant abundance. Consequently, an atmosphere rich in O2 provides the largest feasible energy source. This universal uniqueness suggests that abundant O2 is necessary for the high-energy demands of complex life anywhere, i.e., for actively mobile organisms of approximately 10(-1)-10(0) m size scale with specialized, differentiated anatomy comparable to advanced metazoans. On Earth, aerobic metabolism provides about an order of magnitude more energy for a given intake of food than anaerobic metabolism. As a result, anaerobes do not grow beyond the complexity of uniseriate filaments of cells because of prohibitively low growth efficiencies in a food chain. The biomass cumulative number density, n, at a particular mass, m, scales as n (> m) proportional to m(-1) for aquatic aerobes, and we show that for anaerobes the predicted scaling is n proportional to m (-1.5), close to a growth-limited threshold. Even with aerobic metabolism, the partial pressure of atmospheric O2 (P(O2)) must exceed approximately 10(3) Pa to allow organisms that rely on O2 diffusion to evolve to a size approximately 10(3) m x P(O2) in the range approximately 10(3)-10(4) Pa is needed to exceed the threshold of approximately 10(2) m size for complex life with circulatory physiology. In terrestrial life, O(2) also facilitates hundreds of metabolic pathways, including those that make specialized structural molecules found only in animals. The time scale to reach P(O(2)) approximately 10(4) Pa, or "oxygenation time," was long on the Earth (approximately 3.9 billion years), within almost a factor of 2 of the Sun's main sequence lifetime. Consequently, we argue that the oxygenation time is likely to be a key rate-limiting step in the evolution of complex life on other habitable planets. The oxygenation time could preclude complex life on Earth-like planets orbiting short-lived stars that end their main sequence lives before planetary oxygenation takes place. Conversely, Earth-like planets orbiting long-lived stars are potentially favorable habitats for complex life.