Do We Become More Lonely With Age? A Coordinated Data Analysis of Nine Longitudinal Studies.

Loneliness is a pervasive experience with adverse impacts on health and well-being. Despite its significance, notable gaps impede a full understanding of how loneliness changes across the adult life span and what factors influence these changes. To address this, we conducted a coordinated data analysis of nine longitudinal studies encompassing 128,118 participants ages 13 to 103 from over 20 countries. Using harmonized variables and models, we examined loneliness trajectories and predictors. Analyses revealed that loneliness follows a U-shaped curve, decreasing from young adulthood to midlife and increasing in older adulthood. These patterns were consistent across studies. Several baseline factors (i.e., sex, marital status, physical function, education) were linked to loneliness levels, but few moderated the loneliness trajectories. These findings highlight the dynamic nature of loneliness and underscore the need for targeted interventions to reduce social disparities throughout adulthood.

Rural-urban differences in personality traits and well-being in adulthood.

OBJECTIVE: One large focus of personality psychology is to understand the biopsychosocial factors responsible for adult personality development and well-being change. However, little is known about how macro-level contextual factors, such as rurality-urbanicity, are related to personality development and well-being change. METHOD: The present study uses data from two large longitudinal studies of U.S. Americans (MIDUS, HRS) to examine whether there are rural-urban differences in levels and changes in the Big Five personality traits and well-being (i.e., psychological well-being, and life satisfaction) in adulthood. RESULTS: Multilevel models showed that Americans who lived in more rural areas tended to have lower levels of openness, conscientiousness, and psychological well-being, and higher levels of neuroticism. With the exception of psychological well-being (which replicated across MIDUS and HRS), rural-urban differences in personality traits were only evident in the HRS sample. The effect of neuroticism was fully robust to the inclusion of socio-demographic and social network covariates, but other effects were partially robust (i.e., conscientiousness and openness) or were not robust at all (i.e., psychological well-being). In both samples, there were no rural-urban differences in Big Five or well-being change. CONCLUSIONS: We discuss the implications of these findings for personality and rural health research.

Personality predictors of dementia diagnosis and neuropathological burden: An individual participant data meta-analysis.

INTRODUCTION: The extent to which the Big Five personality traits and subjective well-being (SWB) are discriminatory predictors of clinical manifestation of dementia versus dementia-related neuropathology is unclear. METHODS: Using data from eight independent studies (Ntotal = 44,531; Ndementia = 1703; baseline Mage = 49 to 81 years, 26 to 61% female; Mfollow-up range = 3.53 to 21.00 years), Bayesian multilevel models tested whether personality traits and SWB differentially predicted neuropsychological and neuropathological characteristics of dementia. RESULTS: Synthesized and individual study results indicate that high neuroticism and negative affect and low conscientiousness, extraversion, and positive affect were associated with increased risk of long-term dementia diagnosis. There were no consistent associations with neuropathology. DISCUSSION: This multistudy project provides robust, conceptually replicated and extended evidence that psychosocial factors are strong predictors of dementia diagnosis but not consistently associated with neuropathology at autopsy. HIGHLIGHTS: N(+), C(-), E(-), PA(-), and NA(+) were associated with incident diagnosis. Results were consistent despite self-report versus clinical diagnosis of dementia. Psychological factors were not associated with neuropathology at autopsy. Individuals with higher conscientiousness and no diagnosis had less neuropathology. High C individuals may withstand neuropathology for longer before death.

Well-Being and Cognitive Resilience to Dementia-Related Neuropathology.

Not all older adults with dementia-related neuropathology in their brains experience cognitive decline or impairment. Instead, some people maintain relatively normal cognitive functioning despite neuropathologic burden, a phenomenon called cognitive resilience. Using a longitudinal, epidemiological, clinical-pathologic cohort study of older adults in the United States (N = 348), the present research investigated associations between well-being and cognitive resilience. Consistent with preregistered hypotheses, results showed that higher eudaimonic well-being (measured via the Ryff Psychological Well-Being Scale) and higher hedonic well-being (measured via the Satisfaction with Life Scale) were associated with better-than-expected cognitive functioning relative to one's neuropathological burden (i.e., beta-amyloid, neurofibrillary tangles, Lewy bodies, vascular pathologies, hippocampal sclerosis, and TDP-43). The association of eudaimonic well-being in particular was present above and beyond known cognitive resilience factors (i.e., socioeconomic status, education, cognitive activity, low neuroticism, low depression) and dementia risk factors (i.e., apolipoprotein E [ApoE] genotype, medical comorbidities). This research highlights the importance of considering eudaimonic well-being in efforts to prevent dementia.

The Health Behavior Model of Personality in the Context of a Public Health Crisis.

OBJECTIVE: The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommended behavioral measures to slow the spread of COVID-19, such as social distancing and wearing masks. Although many individuals comply with these recommendations, compliance has been far from universal. Identifying predictors of compliance is crucial for improving health behavior messaging and thereby reducing disease spread and fatalities. METHODS: We report preregistered analyses from a longitudinal study that investigated personality predictors of compliance with behavioral recommendations in diverse US adults across five waves from March to August 2020 (n = 596) and cross-sectionally in August 2020 (n = 405). RESULTS: Agreeableness-characterized by compassion-was the most consistent predictor of compliance, above and beyond other traits, and sociodemographic predictors (sample A, ß = 0.25; sample B, ß = 0.12). The effect of agreeableness was robust across two diverse samples and sensitivity analyses. In addition, openness, conscientiousness, and extraversion were also associated with greater compliance, but effects were less consistent across sensitivity analyses and were smaller in sample A. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals who are less agreeable are at higher risk for noncompliance with behavioral mandates, suggesting that health messaging can be meaningfully improved with approaches that address these individuals in particular. These findings highlight the strong theoretical and practical utility of testing long-standing psychological theories during real-world crises.

Being Happy and Becoming Happier as Independent Predictors of Physical Health and Mortality.

OBJECTIVE: The present study tested preregistered predictions regarding the prospective associations between level and change in subjective well-being (SWB) and physical health. METHODS: In two large longitudinal panel studies conducted in the United States (N = 3294) and Japan (N = 657), we used multilevel growth curve models to estimate level and change in components of SWB (i.e., life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect). Next, we used random intercepts and slopes to predict subsequent self-reported general health and number of chronic health conditions (in the United States and Japan) and mortality risk (in the United States). RESULTS: Greater life satisfaction, higher positive affect, and lower negative affect were associated with better health (0.22 < |ß values| < 0.46) and longer survival. Above and beyond SWB level, longitudinal increases in life satisfaction and positive affect and longitudinal decreases in negative affect were associated with better health (0.06 < |ß values| < 0.20). Moreover, all three SWB components independently predicted health, and life satisfaction and negative affect independently predicted survival. The preregistration and analysis scripts are available at osf.io/mz9gy. CONCLUSIONS: The present findings suggest that being happy and becoming happier across time are independently associated with better physical health in the United States and Japan.

Future Directions in the Study of Personality in Adulthood and Older Age.

Over the past 20 years, empirical evidence has brought about a change in the view on how, or even whether, personality traits change or develop in adulthood and later life. Now we know personality can and does change for many people, if not most. Changes in personality may occur due to biological or environmental factors. This paper presents key empirical findings on personality change in adulthood and provides evidence that personality change affects mental and physical health. Our goal is to provide a broad overview on personality change research that would be an invaluable resource for students and researchers. We organize this paper into 3 sections. The first is focused on techniques in analyzing personality change in adulthood and later life. The second is focused on personality change as an outcome; we explore what factors predict personality change. The third discusses a relatively novel idea: personality change as a predictor of mental and physical health. We conclude that more research on factors predicting personality change is needed and we provide suggestions on how research on personality change can progress.

Personality Traits, Facets and Cognitive Performance: Age Differences in Their Relations.

Personality traits and cognitive performance are related, but little work has examined how these associations vary by personality facet or age. 154 adults aged 22 to 84 completed the Brief Test of Adult Cognition by Telephone (BTACT) and the NEO Five Factor Personality Inventory. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed negative emotional aspects of personality (neuroticism, depression) were associated with lower reasoning, and social aspects of personality (assertiveness) were associated with faster reaction time, yet lower reasoning. The association between neuroticism and performance was found primarily among younger adults. In older adulthood, better performance was associated with positive emotional aspects of personality. We discuss how personality may have different associations with performance across age and the implications for possible interventions.

Longitudinal associations among the Big Five personality traits and healthcare utilization in the U.S.

OBJECTIVE: One critical component of individual and public health is healthcare utilization, or the extent to which individuals have routine check-ups, schedule treatments, or use emergency services. However, we know little about who uses healthcare services and what types, the conditions that exacerbate utilization, or the factors that explain why people seek out services. The present study fills these gaps in the literature by investigating the role of personality factors in predicting various forms of healthcare utilization, how these associations vary by age, socioeconomic resources, and chronic conditions, as well as one potential psychological mediating mechanism (i.e., sense of control). METHODS: We use data from a large longitudinal sample of Americans (N = 7108), with three assessments spanning 20 years. Participants reported on their Big Five personality traits using the Midlife Development Inventory, healthcare utilization across three domains (routine visits, scheduled treatment, urgent care), age, income, insurance, chronic conditions, and sense of control. RESULTS: Multilevel models showed that people who were more agreeable and neurotic tended to use more healthcare services. Moreover, on occasions when people were more extraverted and open, they tended to use more healthcare services. There were several nuances in personality-healthcare utilization associations depending on the type of healthcare service, age, and socioeconomic resources. Longitudinal mediation analyses demonstrated sense of control as one mechanism linking personality traits to healthcare utilization in the U.S. CONCLUSIONS: We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of interactions between individuals and structural systems for promoting the health of aging U.S. Americans.

A Longitudinal Investigation of the Association Between Stroke and Loneliness.

OBJECTIVES: The present research examined associations between stroke and long-term trajectories of loneliness. METHODS: We conducted secondary analyses in 3 large representative panel studies of adults 50 years and older in the United States, Europe, and Israel: the English Longitudinal Study of Aging (ELSA; analytic N = 14,992); the Survey of Health, Aging, and Retirement in Europe (SHARE; analytic N = 103,782); and the Health and Retirement Study (HRS; analytic N = 22,179). Within each sample, we used discontinuous growth curve modeling to estimate loneliness trajectories across adulthood and the impact of stroke on loneliness trajectories. RESULTS: Across all 3 samples, participants who experienced stroke reported higher levels of loneliness relative to participants who did not experience stroke. In ELSA and HRS (but not SHARE), loneliness levels were higher after stroke onset relative to before stroke onset. DISCUSSION: This research adds to a growing body of evidence demonstrating elevated loneliness among stroke survivors and highlights the need for interventions to increase social connectedness after stroke.

Longitudinal Associations Between Multimorbidities and Patient-Reported Quality of Life.

OBJECTIVES: The global prevalence of multimorbidity is increasing as the population ages. As individuals get older, they are likely to develop multiple chronic conditions, and nearly two-thirds of older adults in the United States are estimated to experience 2 or more chronic conditions. The present preregistered study examined whether multimorbidity was associated with longitudinal changes in health-related quality of life (i.e., anxiety, depression, and physical function) and whether these associations were moderated by sociodemographic factors (i.e., sex, race, marital status, income, insurance, and education). METHODS: Data come from the Health Literacy and Cognitive Function Among Older Adults Longitudinal Study (LitCog), a prospective cohort study of English-speaking older adults (N = 900). At each measurement occasion, participants reported anxiety, depression, and physical function using the Patient Reported Outcomes Information System, chronic conditions, and sociodemographic characteristics. We employed multilevel growth models to estimate changes in health-related quality of life, with multimorbidities as a predictor and sociodemographics as covariates. RESULTS: Results indicated that individuals with multiple chronic conditions reported persistently high levels of anxiety and depression, and worse physical function. We found evidence for racial health disparities, such that individuals who identified as non-White experienced worse health-related quality of life as multimorbidities increased, relative to White participants. DISCUSSION: These results contribute to the current conversation about the long-term impacts of structural and systemic barriers experienced by minoritized groups. We further discuss the public health implications of multimorbidity in older adulthood.

A Coordinated Data Analysis of Four Studies Exploring Age Differences in Social Interactions and Loneliness During a Global Pandemic.

OBJECTIVES: Examining loneliness and social isolation during population-wide historical events may shed light on important theoretical questions about age differences, including whether these differences hold across different regions and the time course of the unfolding event. We used a systematic, preregistered approach of coordinated data analysis (CDA) of 4 studies (total N = 1,307; total observations = 18,492) that varied in design (intensive repeated-measures and cross-sectional), region, timing, and timescale during the first year of the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. METHODS: We harmonized our data sets to a common period within 2020-2021 and created a common set of variables. We used a combination of ordinary least squares regression and multilevel modeling to address the extent to which there was within- and between-person variation in the associations between social isolation and loneliness, and whether these associations varied as a function of age. RESULTS: Within- and between-person effects of social interactions were negatively associated with loneliness in 1 study; in follow-up sensitivity analyses, these patterns held across early and later pandemic periods. Across all data sets, there was no evidence of age differences in the within-person or between-person associations of social interactions and loneliness. DISCUSSION: Applying the CDA methodological framework allowed us to detect common and divergent patterns of social interactions and loneliness across samples, ages, regions, periods, and study designs.

Associations Between Generativity and Social Asymmetry Among Older Adults in Japan.

OBJECTIVES: Loneliness and social isolation are major public health concerns among older adults in Japan. Generativity, the concern for and commitment to future generations, may buffer older adults from loneliness. This study examined the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between generativity and social asymmetry (the discrepancy between social isolation and loneliness) among older adults in Japan. METHODS: Data were from 2 waves (2008 and 2012) of the Midlife in Japan survey, a nationally representative longitudinal study of 645 adults aged 30-79 residing in the Tokyo metropolitan area. Generativity was measured using the 6-item Loyola Generativity Scale. Social asymmetry was computed as the residual score from regressing loneliness onto social isolation. RESULTS: Higher generativity levels were associated with lower social asymmetry scores (B=-0.21, SE=0.04), but generativity change across waves did not predict social asymmetry 4 years later (B=-0.04, SE=0.06). DISCUSSION: Generativity may play a protective role in buffering older adults from the adverse effects of social isolation on loneliness. Promoting generativity among older adults may be a potential intervention strategy to reduce loneliness and improve well-being in aging populations in Japan.

Does personality always matter for health? Examining the moderating effect of age on the personality-health link from life span developmental and aging perspectives.

Extensive evidence has been found for the associations between personality traits and health. However, it remains unknown whether the relationships between personality and health show differential patterns across different life stages. The current research examined how the associations between the levels of and changes in the Big Five personality traits and different types of health outcomes (self-rated, physical, and physiological health outcomes) differ across ages over the life span (Sample 1, age range: 15-100) and during the aging process (Sample 2, age range: 50-109) in particular. Using data from the two large longitudinal studies-the Household, Income, and Labor Dynamics in Australia Survey and the Health and Retirement Study, we observed three important patterns. First, levels of and changes in personality traits were significantly associated with health across different life phases, and these effects were observed even in very old ages. Second, overall, the prospective relations between personality traits/changes in personality traits and health outcomes increased in strength in middle adulthood and/or early stages of late adulthood; however, the strength of their connections diminished in very old ages. Finally, there were some trait-specific and health outcome-specific patterns in the age-differential associations between personality and health. Findings from the present study contribute to enhancing our understanding of the personality-health link from a developmental perspective and provide critical information for the design and implementation of screening and interventions targeting health promotion. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

How financial incentives in parenting skills programs affect engagement and outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis protocol.

OBJECTIVE: This systematic review will investigate the effects of financial incentives on engagement with and outcomes of evidence-based parenting skills programs to prevent and treat disruptive behavior disorders. INTRODUCTION: Evidence-based parenting skills programs are a first-line treatment in disruptive behavior disorders (ie, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder), but fewer than half of referred parents complete these programs. When untreated, children affected by disruptive behavior disorders are at elevated risk of incarceration, drug misuse, and educational under-performance. Financial incentives can improve parents' engagement with parenting skills programs, and are increasingly popular strategies in public health policy to increase rates of compliance with health interventions. However, no previous systematic review or meta-analysis of financial incentives in parenting skills programs has been conducted. INCLUSION CRITERIA: Randomized controlled trials or quasi-experimental studies (ie, studies with a control group allocated through a non-random process) testing the effects of financial incentives on engagement will be included. Study participants must be in a guardian role to a person under 18 years of age. There will be no restrictions on country setting. Only English-language publications will be included. METHODS: We will search PubMed, CINAHL, Sociological Abstracts, Cochrane Trials, and PsycINFO databases for relevant articles. Two independent reviewers will screen abstracts for eligibility. Data will be extracted from eligible articles by 2 researchers and results will be presented in tabular and narrative format, along with a meta-analysis using a random effects model and assessment of heterogeneity. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION NUMBER: PROSPERO CRD42022336210.

The Big Five personality traits and allostatic load in middle to older adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Further understanding of the associations between personality traits and allostatic load (AL) may be important for predicting, addressing, and optimizing health outcomes. This review synthesized the existing literature reporting the association between the Big Five personality traits and AL in adults to identify the generalizability and robustness of relationships, potential mechanisms underlying the associations, and study characteristics that may be contributing to inconsistencies in the field. Published and unpublished empirical reports were included if at least one of the Big Five traits was examined and an AL index was constructed using at least two biomarkers in a sample of adults. The methodological plan and standardized coding guide were pre-registered and reported (https://osf.io/rxw5a). Based on 11 studies that met eligibility, meta-analysis of correlation coefficients indicated a small but significant positive association between neuroticism and AL, and small but significant inverse associations between both conscientiousness and openness with AL. This review identifies strengths and limitations within the field, as well as several avenues for future research.

Personality traits, cognitive states, and mortality in older adulthood.

Research suggests that personality traits are associated with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), dementia, and mortality risk, but the timing of when traits are most important in the progression to dementia and the extent to which they are associated with years of cognitive health span are unclear. This project applied secondary data analysis to the Rush Memory and Aging Project (N = 1954; baseline Mage = 80 years; 74% female) over up to 23 annual assessments. Multistate survival modeling examined the extent to which conscientiousness, neuroticism, and extraversion, assessed using the NEO Five Factor Inventory, were associated with transitions between cognitive status categories and death. Additionally, multinomial regression models estimated cognitive health span and total survival based on standard deviation units of personality traits. Adjusting for demographics, depressive symptoms, and apolipoprotein (APOE) ε4, personality traits were most important in the transition from no cognitive impairment (NCI) to MCI. For instance, higher conscientiousness was associated with a decreased risk of transitioning from NCI to MCI, hazard ratio (HR) = 0.78, 95% CI [0.72, 0.85] and higher neuroticism was associated with an increased risk of transitioning from NCI to MCI, HR = 1.12, 95% CI [1.04, 1.21]. Additional significant and nonsignificant results are discussed in the context of the existing literature. While personality traits were not associated with total longevity, individuals higher in conscientiousness and extraversion, and lower in neuroticism, had more years of cognitive health span, particularly female participants. These findings provide novel understanding of the simultaneous associations between personality traits and transitions between cognitive status categories and death, as well as cognitive health span and total longevity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Emotional responses to a global stressor: Average patterns and individual differences.

Major stressors often challenge emotional well-being-increasing negative emotions and decreasing positive emotions. But how long do these emotional hits last? Prior theory and research contain conflicting views. Some research suggests that most individuals' emotional well-being will return to, or even surpass, baseline levels relatively quickly. Others have challenged this view, arguing that this type of resilient response is uncommon. The present research provides a strong test of resilience theory by examining emotional trajectories over the first 6 months of the COVID-19 pandemic. In two pre-registered longitudinal studies (total N =1147), we examined average emotional trajectories and predictors of individual differences in emotional trajectories across 13 waves of data from February through September 2020. The pandemic had immediate detrimental effects on average emotional well-being. Across the next 6 months, average negative emotions returned to baseline levels with the greatest improvements occurring almost immediately. Yet, positive emotions remained depleted relative to baseline levels, illustrating the limits of typical resilience. Individuals differed substantially around these average emotional trajectories and these individual differences were predicted by socio-demographic characteristics and stressor exposure. We discuss theoretical implications of these findings that we hope will contribute to more nuanced approaches to studying, understanding, and improving emotional well-being following major stressors.

Associations Between Loneliness and Cognitive Resilience to Neuropathology in Older Adults.

OBJECTIVES: Loneliness in the aging population is associated with decreased cognitive function and increased neuropathology; less is understood about the association of loneliness and cognitive resilience (CR), defined as the discordance between a person's actual and expected cognition given their neuropathology. Here we assess the effect of loneliness and change in loneliness on CR at end of life and across older adulthood. METHODS: Data were combined from 2 longitudinal studies of older adults. CR proximate to death (CRlast_level) and across time (CRslope) was obtained by independently regressing global cognition and change in cognition onto multiple neuropathology indicators and extracting the resulting residuals. We used a series of simple linear regression models to assess the effect of loneliness level and change on CRlast_level and CRslope. RESULTS: Higher baseline loneliness was associated with lower CRlast_level (ß = -0.11, 95% confidence interval [95% CI; -0.18, -0.04], p < .01); higher baseline loneliness and increasing loneliness over time was associated with lower CRslope (ß = -0.13, 95% CI [-0.22, -0.05], p < .01 and ß = -0.12, 95% CI [-0.20, -0.04], p < .01, respectively). Results were robust to covariate inclusion and independent of objective social isolation. DISCUSSION: Higher and increasing loneliness was associated with lower CR in the face of neuropathology. These results suggest that some individuals are less resilient to the accumulation of neuropathology than others, and experiencing high/increasing loneliness is a key factor putting some at risk. Interventions aimed at optimizing cognitive function across older adults should include loneliness reduction as a potential area of focus.

Is there intergenerational continuity in early life experiences? Findings from the Harvard Study of Adult Development.

There has been longstanding and widespread interdisciplinary interest in understanding intergenerational processes, or the extent to which conditions repeat themselves across generations. However, due to the difficulty of collecting longitudinal, multigenerational data on early life conditions, less is known about the extent to which offspring experience the same early life conditions that their parents experienced in their own early lives. Using data from a socioeconomically diverse, White U.S. American cohort of 1,312 offspring (50% female) and their fathers (N = 518 families), we address three primary questions: (1) To what extent is there intergenerational continuity in early life experiences (social class, home atmosphere, parent-child relationship quality, health)? (2) Is intergenerational continuity in early life experiences greater for some domains of experience compared to others? and (3) Are there person-level (offspring sex, birth order, perceptions of marital stability) and family-level factors (family size, father education level and education mobility, marital stability) that moderate intergenerational continuity? Multilevel models indicated that intergenerational continuity was particularly robust for childhood social class, but nonsignificant for other early life experiences. Further, intergenerational continuity was moderated by several family-level factors, such that families with higher father education/mobility and marital stability, tended to have offspring with the most optimal early life experiences, regardless of what their father experienced in early life. We discuss the broader theoretical implications for family systems, as well as practical implications for individual-level and family-level interventions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).