Unaccompanied refugee minors in Germany: attitudes of the general population towards a vulnerable group.

Germany saw an increase in numbers of refugees in 2015, with nearly a third being below the age of 18. Unaccompanied refugee minors (URMs) present an especially vulnerable group. In addition to pre-flight and flight stress, the acculturation process can work as potential stressor, and we wanted to explore attitudes towards URM. We conducted a study in a representative sample (n = 2524) of the German population (ages 14 years or older) between January and March 2016. Only 22.8% of participants thought that Germany could accompany more URM. While few participants argued in support of immediate deportation of URM in general (38.6%) or of URM from the Middle East (35.3%), a majority advocated for immediate deportations of URM from the Balkan region (62%) or from Africa (51.1%). Difference in the variance regarding attitudes towards deportation was explained mostly by right-wing political attitudes as well as by islamophobic attitudes and general rejection of asylum seekers. High rates of approval were found for guaranteeing the same chances to schooling or apprenticeship for URM as to German children and for bestowing URM a right to permanent residence if they were able to complete school or apprenticeship. Education and qualification are key to integration. Studies about needs and wishes of URM consistently report a high motivation to learn the language of their new host country and attend school. At this point, hopes of URM and expectations of society meet, which underlines the importance of participation in education as key factor in integration.

[Nonsuicidal self-injury in adolescence: a clinical guideline for diagnostics and therapy]. / Nicht-suizidales selbstverletzendes Verhalten (NSSV) im Jugendalter: Klinische Leitlinie zur Diagnostik und Therapie.

Objective: Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a frequent, clinically relevant phenomenon occurring in adolescence, which can be observed parallel to various mental disorders. Within Europe, Germany has one of the highest prevalence rates in youths, with the lifetime prevalence ranging between 25­35 %. To date a guideline on the treatment of self-injury and stereotypic motoric disorders has been available, the last having been updated in 2006 and expired in 2011. Methods: The guideline development group consisted of members of 11 medical, psychological, or psychotherapeutic professional associations and two members from patient and prevention groups. The guideline was developed in two meetings followed up by consecutive literature searches; it was adopted in a final consensus conference. The algorithm on the treatment of NSSI was approved in three rounds of a Delphi process. Results: Although there is solid evidence of NSSI from the fields of epidemiology and diagnostics, few studies report data on the longitudinal course as well as on the psychotherapeutic and adjuvant psychopharmacological treatment of NSSI in adolescence. The stepped care regimens in cases demanding somatic treatment were addressed interdisciplinarily. Conclusions: In accordance with the heterogeneous evidence, important points for the treatment of NSSI in adolescence were determined in a consensus conference. There is still a lack of knowledge on prevention as well as clinical interventions, both of which need to be addressed by further research.

The prevalence of Nonsuicidal Self-Injury (NSSI) in a representative sample of the German population.

BACKGROUND: Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a proposed new "condition for further study" in the DSM-5. To date no prevalence data has been available on this diagnostic entity from a representative sample of the general population. METHODS: A representative sample of the German population (N = 2509, mean age = 48.8 years, SD = 18.1, female 55.4 %) completed the NSSI section of the German version of the Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors Interview (SITBI-G). RESULTS: A history of NSSI at least once during lifetime was reported by 3.1 % of all participants, with higher lifetime prevalence rates in younger age groups. DSM-5 NSSI disorder criteria were met by 0.3 %. The most common function of NSSI was automatic negative reinforcement (e.g. to alleviate negative feelings). CONCLUSIONS: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study reporting rates for the proposed NSSI category in DSM-5 from a representative sample of the general population. In comparison to findings from community samples of adolescents, adults seem to have lower lifetime prevalence rates of NSSI, thus making it necessary to emphasize prevention and treatment efforts in younger age groups.

The situation of former adolescent self-injurers as young adults: a follow-up study.

BACKGROUND: Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) in adolescence has been described as comorbid condition in affective or anxiety disorders, as well as borderline personality disorder (BPD) and is a risk factor for later suicide attempts. Prevalence rates of NSSI decline steeply from adolescence to young adulthood. Yet, to the best of our knowledge, the longitudinal development of adolescent psychiatric patients with NSSI into their young adulthood has not been investigated. The aim of this study was to assess current NSSI and psychological impairment of young adults, who had been in treatment for NSSI in their adolescence. METHODS: Former patients of the departments of child and adolescent psychiatry and psychotherapy in Ulm and Ravensburg, Germany (N = 52), who presented with NSSI in their adolescence, were recruited (average age: 21.5 years (SD = 2.6)). Data was assessed using questionnaires and structured clinical interviews. Two groups of participants with prevailing NSSI and ceased NSSI were compared concerning their current psychological impairment, history of NSSI, suicide attempts, and BPD diagnosis. RESULTS: Around half of all participants had engaged in NSSI within the last year, and around half met diagnostic criteria for BPD. Although there was no significant association between current NSSI and BPD, an earlier age of onset of NSSI and a longer duration of NSSI during adolescence was significantly predictive of adult BPD. Two thirds of participants still met criteria of an axis 1 psychiatric disorder. Suicide attempts were reported by 53.8 % of all participants. Participants with current NSSI were more likely to meet criteria for a current axis 1 disorder, had engaged in NSSI more often in their lifetime, and reported more suicide attempts. CONCLUSIONS: Reduction of NSSI from adolescence to young adulthood was lower than described in previous community samples. This may be due to the initial high psychiatric impairment of this sample in adolescence. Early onset of NSSI seemed to be a risk factor for a longer duration of NSSI during adolescence but not for NSSI prevailing into adulthood. However, it was a risk factor for adult BPD. Furthermore, the occurrence of suicidal thoughts and behaviors and prevailing NSSI was highly associated.

Why alternative teenagers self-harm: exploring the link between non-suicidal self-injury, attempted suicide and adolescent identity.

BACKGROUND: The term 'self-harm' encompasses both attempted suicide and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI). Specific adolescent subpopulations such as ethnic or sexual minorities, and more controversially, those who identify as 'Alternative' (Goth, Emo) have been proposed as being more likely to self-harm, while other groups such as 'Jocks' are linked with protective coping behaviours (for example exercise). NSSI has autonomic (it reduces negative emotions) and social (it communicates distress or facilitates group 'bonding') functions. This study explores the links between such aspects of self-harm, primarily NSSI, and youth subculture. METHODS: An anonymous survey was carried out of 452 15 year old German school students. Measures included: identification with different youth cultures, i.e. Alternative (Goth, Emo, Punk), Nerd (academic) or Jock (athletic); social background, e.g. socioeconomic status; and experience of victimisation. Self-harm (suicide and NSSI) was assessed using Self-harm Behavior Questionnaire and the Functional Assessment of Self-Mutilation (FASM). RESULTS: An "Alternative" identity was directly (r ≈ 0.3) and a "Jock" identity inversely (r ≈ -0.1) correlated with self-harm. "Alternative" teenagers self-injured more frequently (NSSI 45.5% vs. 18.8%), repeatedly self-injured, and were 4-8 times more likely to attempt suicide (even after adjusting for social background) than their non-Alternative peers. They were also more likely to self-injure for autonomic, communicative and social reasons than other adolescents. CONCLUSIONS: About half of 'Alternative' adolescents' self-injure, primarily to regulate emotions and communicate distress. However, a minority self-injure to reinforce their group identity, i.e. 'To feel more a part of a group'.

Adolescent non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) in German-speaking countries: comparing prevalence rates from three community samples.

PURPOSE: Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) has been recognized as a significant mental health problem in adolescence with high prevalence rates. To date, there are few studies that compare rates of adolescent NSSI between different countries. Thus far no prevalence rates of adolescent NSSI have been reported for Austrian or Swiss community samples. METHODS: This study aimed to assess and compare rates of adolescent NSSI in school samples from Austria, Germany and Switzerland using the same assessment instrument (Ottawa Self-Injury Inventory; OSI). RESULTS: Within these countries, 6-month prevalence rates between 7.6 and 14.6% were found, with rates showing significant differences between countries (χ² = 16.54, p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate with some variability the significant rates of NSSI in youth in a cross-country study.

Differential neural processing of social exclusion in adolescents with non-suicidal self-injury: An fMRI study.

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is highly prevalent in adolescence and has been suggested as an autonomous diagnosis in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5). Social rejection is as potential risk-factor for NSSI and depression in adolescence. Objectives of this study were to identify differences in neural processing of social rejection in depressed adolescents with and without co-morbid NSSI and healthy controls. Participants were 28 depressed adolescents (14 with co-morbid NSSI, 79% females) and 15 healthy controls, with an average age of 15.2 years (SD=1.8). Social exclusion was implemented using the Cyberball paradigm 'Cyberball' during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). All participants reported feelings of social exclusion after fMRI scanning. Investigating the effects of NSSI, we found that depressed adolescents with NSSI showed relatively enhanced activation of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC) compared to depressed adolescents without NSSI and also compared to healthy controls. Results point towards divergent processing of social exclusion in depressed adolescents with NSSI as compared to adolescents with mere depression in brain regions previously related to the processing of social exclusion. This finding of distinct neurophysiological responses may stimulate further research on individual treatment approaches.

Treating nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) in adolescents: consensus based German guidelines.

BACKGROUND: Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a frequent and clinically relevant phenomenon in adolescence. Within Europe, Germany has one of the highest prevalence rates in youth with lifetime prevalence ranging between 25 and 35%. However, treatment guidelines for NSSI are not yet available. METHODS: Consensus based clinical guidelines were created by a working group consisting of members of eleven medical, psychological or psychotherapeutic professional national associations, and two members of patient self-help and prevention groups. The guidelines were developed in consecutive expert meetings and literature searches and agreed on in a final consensus conference. RESULTS: Given that evidence on both the psychotherapeutic and psychopharmacological treatment of NSSI is limited, a consensus based approach was chosen. The consensus indicated that due to the accumulating evidence on the efficacy of psychotherapeutic approaches, core elements of psychotherapy should be provided in treatment of NSSI. A specific psychopharmacological therapy of NSSI cannot be recommended. In addition, the guidelines provide recommendations for surgical intervention of NSSI. CONCLUSIONS: In accordance with the heterogeneous level of evidence, recommendations for the clinical management of NSSI in adolescence were made during a consensus conference after reviewing available literature. There is still a lack of knowledge on prevention as well as clinical interventions, which needs to be addressed by further clinically relevant studies.

Differential neural processing of unpleasant haptic sensations in somatic and affective partitions of the insula in non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI).

Altered perception and neural processing of pain have been observed during non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI). Evidence suggests that this phenomenon could be associated with the affective rather than the somatosensory dimension of pain. Sub-partitions of the insula have been suggested to process these different aspects differentially. In the present study, activation within the posterior, middle, and anterior partitions of the insula upon unpleasant electric stimulation was compared between subjects with a history of NSSI and healthy controls. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we investigated a sample of 30 subjects, 14 of them with a lifetime history of NSSI. Unpleasant electric stimulation to the dorsum of the non-dominant hand was performed at four levels of increasing intensity. Significantly increasing posterior insula activation, which is likely to reflect the somatosensory aspects of unpleasant haptic sensations, was found upon parametrically increasing electric stimulation in both groups. By contrast, activation of the anterior insula, rather related to the more affective aspects of distressing stimuli, was significantly modulated only in the control group, but not in subjects with NSSI. These findings may support present hypotheses of altered processing of the more affective aspects of unpleasant or distressing experiences in NSSI, as a putatively relevant factor for understanding the etiology of this behavior.

The longitudinal course of non-suicidal self-injury and deliberate self-harm: a systematic review of the literature.

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) has been proposed as diagnostic entity and was added to the section 3 of the DSM 5. Nevertheless, little is known about the long-term course of this disorder and many studies have pointed to the fact that NSSI seems to be volatile over time. We aimed to assemble studies providing longitudinal data about NSSI and furthermore included studies using the definition of deliberate self-harm (DSH) to broaden the epidemiological picture. Using a systematic search strategy, we were able to retrieve 32 studies reporting longitudinal data about NSSI and DSH. We furthermore aimed to describe predictors for the occurrence of NSSI and DSH that were identified in these longitudinal studies. Taken together, there is evidence for an increase in rates of NSSI and DSH in adolescence with a decline in young adulthood. With regards to predictors, rates of depressive symptoms and female gender were often reported as predictor for both NSSI and DSH.

Immigration as risk factor for non-suicidal self-injury and suicide attempts in adolescents in Germany.

BACKGROUND: Whereas non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and suicide attempts (SA) are rather common among adolescents, the description of risk factors has often failed to take migration into perspective. Our study aimed to describe immigration status in adolescents with regards to their lifetime history of NSSI and SA. METHODS: We carried out a population based study in a school community of ninth-graders (N = 452, mean age 14.85, SD 0.58) in southern Germany. Data were collected via adolescent self report on sociodemographic variables and on NSSI and SA using the Self Harm Behavior Questionnaire. RESULTS: Adolescents born outside Germany showed an elevated rate of a lifetime history of NSSI and SA. When compared to German adolescents without a (family) history of migration (NSSI 19.16%, SA 3.24%), adolescents who were born in another country had an elevated risk for NSSI (42.86%, OR 3.36) and SA (17.86%, OR 6.78), which was higher than the risk of adolescents who had at least one parent who had emigrated from another country (NSSI 30.08%, OR 2.46 and SA 8.94%, OR 4.45). CONCLUSION: Our findings should inform intervention services and prevention programs for NSSI and suicidality in youth. Adopting such programs to include culturally sensible modules could improve the outcome in ethnically diverse adolescents.

The association of non-suicidal self-injury and suicidal behavior according to DSM-5 in adolescent psychiatric inpatients.

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and suicidal behaviors frequently occur among adolescent psychiatric patients. Although those behaviors are distinct with regards to intent, NSSI has been shown to be an important risk-factor for suicide attempts. However, the association of NSSI and Suicidal Behavior Disorder (SBD) according to DSM-5 criteria has not yet been investigated. For investigating distinctive features and mutual risk-factors of NSSI-disorder and SBD, adolescent psychiatric inpatients (N=111, aged 12-19 years; 65.8% females) were interviewed using the Self-Injurious-Thoughts-And-Behaviors-Interview-German (SITBI-G). NSSI started significantly earlier in life (M=12.5 years, SD=2.2) than first suicide attempts (M=14.1 years, SD=2.0). Patients meeting NSSI-disorder and/or SBD were significantly more likely to be female and to be diagnosed with an affective disorder. NSSI-disorder and SBD seem to have several distinctive features (i.e. age of onset or frequency), but also seem to share certain mutual risk-factors (i.e. affective disorders, female gender). While both NSSI and SBD seem to be maintained by mainly automatic negative reinforcement, positive automatic and social functions were rated significantly higher for NSSI. Most importantly, NSSI seems to be a strong risk factor for the occurrence of SBD (even when controlling for suicidal ideation) and should therefore always be assessed when dealing with psychiatric adolescent patients.

It's all about money: oral contraception alters neural reward processing.

Mating preferences in phases of the natural menstrual cycle with a low probability to conceive have been associated with lower interest in characteristics promising genetic benefits but increased search for safety and future security. We hypothesized that this effect would also be evident under oral contraception and may therefore alter neural processing of monetary rewards as a proxy for potential safety. Our aim was to assess the activation of reward-related brain areas using a monetary incentive task in women with functional MRI (fMRI). We compared fMRI activation of 12 young women taking oral contraceptives with 12 women with a natural hormonal cycle in their follicular phase during the expectation of monetary rewards. Women under hormonal contraception who have already shown decreased anterior insula activation upon erotic stimulation in a previous study of the same sample now showed enhanced activation during monetary reward expectation in the anterior insula/inferior lateral prefrontal cortex (t=2.84; P<0.05) relative to young normal cycling women in the follicular phase. Our finding supports the notion that the switch in mating preferences related to different hormonal states in women is mirrored by a switch in the stimulus-dependent excitability of reward-related brain regions. Beyond highlighting hormonal effects on reward processing, our data underline the importance of monitoring hormonal states in fMRI research in women.