Early concepts on the mechanism of peritonitis with special regard to the experimental work of Karol Klecki.

The term peritonitis is relatively new in medical language, however some of its symptoms were observed and noted even in antiquity. The proper recognition of peritonitis as a distinct pathological entity was made possible when progress in the clinical and experimental sciences give birth to the methodology needed for the investigation of the etiology and mechanism of peritoneal inflammation. Research concerning this clinical topic began to yield significant results in the second half of 19th century. This paper aims to give some insight into this pioneering period of scientific investigation focused on the etiology and pathology of peritonitis. From the work of von Recklinghausen in the 1860s, through the later research of Wegner and Gravitz, the next major step in this field was made by the Polish experimental pathologist and pathophysiologist Karol Klecki.

Salmonella Typhi - historical perspective of discovery and forgotten contribution of Polish anatomopathology.

Outbreaks of typhoid fever for centuries decimated armies, cities and large hosts of people. Discovery of an agent causing such a grave disease became one of the most important achievements of bacteriology - science, which had experienced rapid development in the last quarter of the 19th century and changed the course of our civilization.The article deals with the discovery of Tadeusz Browicz, Polish anatomopathologist, who in 1874 reported about rod-shaped "parasites" in viscera of typhoid fever victim. His achievement became shaded by the later discoveries of Eberth, Klebs and Gaffky, but as authors stated below, Browicz should be recognized with mentioned scientists as a co-discoverer of the typhoid fever bacillus.

Ludwik Karol Teichmann (1823-1895).

Ludwik Karol Teichmann was the last of gross anatomists. His magnificent work on the lymphatic system gained him appreciation of the whole current scientific world. Based on the unpublished materials authors wanted to commemorate one of the greatest Polish and world anatomists with special regard to coming soon 150th anniversary of Theatrum Anatomicum of Jagiellonian University Medical College.

Formalin use in anatomical and histological science in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The introduction of formalin, a formaldehyde solution, as a disinfectant and fixative was an essential improvement in anatomical and histological science. This paper is an outline of the historical use of formalin based on primary source texts and historical studies. We describe how the discovery of acetaldehyde in the 18th century led to the development of formalin as the most common ingredient in embalming fluids in the 20th century and is still used today. Particularly important contributions to this process were made by Justus von Liebig, Alexander Butlerow and August Wilhelm Hofmann in the development of anatomical and histological preparation techniques, and by Ferdinand Blum, Ferdinand Julius Cohn, Frederick C. Kenyon and Victor Wehr in the practical uses of formaldehyde solutions in preservation and fixation of soft tissues. However, formalin is not without its drawbacks and as its toxicity became more understood, method to mitigate its effects were demanded. Eventually safer preparation techniques were developed, including Hagens' plastination and Thiel Embalming Method. These techniques may someday largely replace high-concentration formalin solutions but they both still require at least small quantities of formaldehyde to preserve tissues for study.

[The history of Odo Bujwid's research concerning hygienic assessment of water].

The present paper is dedicated to the work of Polish hygienist and bacteriologist Odo Bujwid (1857-1942), which referred to the problem of water quality assessment from the perspective of medicine, with particular emphasis given on the bacteriological, chemical and physical analysis of its quality, as well on the system and construct designs concerned with water supply and filtering adjustments, with particular emphasis on the experience coming from practical observations gained from cities of Krakow and Warsaw. The work focuses on the postulates formulated by Bujwid over several decades, from the 1880s onwards and in the interwar period ending, which were rooted in his own field research and laboratory observations combined with results of other researchers and constructs in that field.

[Sigismund Laskowski and his anatomical preparations technique]. / Zygmunt Laskowski i jego technika tworzenia preparatów anatomicznych.

Fixation of the entire bodies or individual organs, and later as well tissues and cellular structures, was and still is often a challenge for anatomists and histologists. Technique that combines extensive knowledge of natural sciences, as well as technical skills, was by those best researchers as Frederik Ruysch, brought to perfection. Preparations, if done with care and talent, are really propelling progress in anatomical studies and determining the quality of education for medical students and young physicians. And as it is true for many of today's medical disciplines and natural sciences, the nineteenth century was in many ways a breaking point for preparatory techniques in the realm of anatomy and histology. Among those who have achieved success, earning notoriety during their lifetime and often going into the annals of European most distinguished scholars were some Polish names: Louis Maurice Hirschfeld, whose preparations of the nervous system earned him well-deserved, international fame, Louis Charles Teichmann, who was the very first so precisely describing the lymphatic system and a creator of unique injection mass, Henry Kadyi, known for his outstanding preparations, especially of vascular system. Henry Frederick Hoyer sen., who was one of the first to use formalin regularly for accurate microscopic preparations, is seen by many as the founder of the Polish histology. In this group of innovators and precursors of modern preparation techniques place should be reserved for Zygmunt (Sigismund) Laskowski, Polish patriot, fighting in January Uprising, later an immigrant, a professor at the university sequentially Paris and Geneva. Acclaimed author of anatomical tables and certainly creator of one of the groundbreaking techniques in anatomical preparations. Based after many years of research on the simple glycerine-phenol mixture achieved excellent results both in fixation of entire bodies and organs or tissues. Quality of those preparations was as high and sometimes even higher than later formalin using techniques, and was finally surpassed only by plastination.

[Notes from the medical clinic of professor Józef Dietl]. / Notatki z kliniki lekarskiej prof. Józefa Dietla.

Jozef Dietl was one of the most eminent physicians of 19th century. His influence on the development of medical clinic in Krakow was decisive. Educated in Vienna, Dietl became familiar to the patterns of the s. c. Younger School, becoming one of the major proponents of its ideas. Writen by him Praktische Wahrnehmungen nach den Ergebnissen them Wiedner --Bezirkskrankenhaus (1845) became a kind of "manifesto" of the new, based on close pathological study medicine. How much these ideas were practically implemented in the academic teaching is the subject of comparative studies, which preliminary results are presented in this article. This text refers the manuscript collection of the Department of the History of Medicine of Jagiellonian University, including the recently known lecture notes by written down by then medical student Hippolytus Rychlicki. In light of the documents related directly to clinical teaching should go research to what extent Dietl's official declarations given in Praktische Wahrnehmungen (1845) and Aphorisms on the strict clinical study (1862-4).

[History of medicine by prof. Sebastian Girtlera]. / Historia medycyny prof. Sebastiana Girtlera.

Sebastian Girtler (1767-1833), who later became rector of the Jagiellonian University is known primarily as a lecturer and author of several works of forensic medicine, police attention and veterinary medicine. Not so often we hear of him as a historian of medicine, subject of Girtler's interests, which had a lot of his attention and work. This text, to a significant extent based on archival materials, seeks to reconstruct the teaching program and analyses the content and methodology of the two works directly related to past of medical sciences, which had been written by Girtler himself.

[Evelopment of Krakow's pathological collection in 19th century]. / Rozwój krakowskiej kolekcji anatomopatologicznej w XIX stuleciu.

With the evolution of pathological anatomy in the nineteenth century arose the need to create separate collection of preparations, which were used for teaching and studying important anatomical changes. Collections were built on wet preparations (mainly preserved in alcohol), dry, wax models and plaster casts usually taking form of the permanent sets. In this paper are shown, based on the analysis of the preserved documentation and reports, ways of the development of such collections which lead to the formation of the Pathological Museum of the Jagiellonian University. At the same time research is made to clarify a number of doubts and confusion which accompanied this process, which lasted a total of a few decades.

Prostacyclin among prostanoids.

Prostanoids are cyclic lipid mediators which arise from enzymic cyclooxygenation of linear polyunsaturated fatty acids, e.g. arachidonic acid (20:4 n 6, AA). Biologically active prostanoids deriving from AA include stable prostaglandins (PGs), e.g. PGE(2), PGF(2alpha), PGD(2), PGJ(2) as well as labile prostanoids, i.e. PG endoperoxides (PGG(2), PGH(2)), thromboxane A(2) (TXA(2)) and prostacyclin (PGI(2)). A "Rabbit aorta Contracting Substance" (RCS) played important role in discovering of labile PGs. RCS was discovered in the Vane's Cascade as a labile product released along with PGs from the activated lung or spleen. RCS was identified as a mixture of PG endoperoxides and thromboxane A(2). Stable PGs regulate the cell cycle, smooth muscle tone and various secretory functions; they also modulate inflammatory and immune reactions. PG endoperoxides are intermediates in biosynthesis of all prostanoids. Thromboxane A(2) (TXA(2)) is the most labile prostanoid (with a half life of 30 s at 37 degrees C). It is generated mainly by blood platelets. TXA(2) is endowed with powerful vasoconstrictor, cytotoxic and thrombogenic properties. Again the Vane's Cascade was behind the discovery of prostacyclin (PGI(2)) with a half life of 4 min at 37 degrees C. It is produced by the vascular wall (predominantly by the endothelium) and it acts as a physiological antagonist of TXA(2). Moreover, prostacyclin per se is a powerful cytoprotective agent that exerts its action through activation of adenylate cyclase, followed by an intracellular accumulation of cyclic-AMP in various types of cells. In that respect PGI(2) collaborates with the system consisting of NO synthase (eNOS)/nitric oxide free radical (NO)/guanylate cyclase/cyclic-GMP. Both cyclic nucleotides (c-AMP and c-GMP) act in synergy as two energetic fists which defend the cellular machinery from being destroyed by endogenous or exogenous aggressors. Recently, a new partner has been recognized in this endogenous defensive squadron, i.e. a system consisting of heme oxygenase (HO-1)/carbon monoxide (CO)/biliverdin/biliverdin reductase/bilirubin. The expanding knowledge on the pharmacological steering of this enzymic triad (PGI(2)-S/eNOS/HO-1) is likely to contribute to the rational therapy of many systemic diseases such as atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, arterial hypertension or Alzheimer diseases. The discovery of prostacyclin broadened our pathophysiological horizon, and by itself opened new therapeutic possibilities. Prostacyclin sodium salt and its synthetic stable analogues (iloprost, beraprost, treprostinil, epoprostenol, cicaprost) are useful drugs for the treatment of the advanced critical limb ischemia, e.g. in the course of Buerger's disease, and also for the treatment of pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH). In this last case a synergism between prostacyclin analogues and sildenafil (a selective phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitor) or bosentan (an endothelin ET-1 receptor antagonist) points our to complex mechanisms controlling pulmonary circulation. At the Jagiellonian University we have demonstrated that several well recognised cardiovascular drugs, e.g. ACE inhibitors (ACE-I), statins, some of beta-adrenergic receptor antagonists, e.g. carvedilol or nebivolol, anti-platelet thienopyridines (ticlopidine, clopidogrel) and a metabolite of vitamin PP--N(1)-methyl-nicotinamide--all of them are endowed with the in vivo PGI(2)-releasing properties. In this way, the foundations for the Endothelial Pharmacology were laid.

Roots of modern cardiology in Poland.

The aim of the paper was to present the achievements of Polish physicians in the field of heart diseases in the times when cardiology was still not established as a separate branch of medicine, i.e. in the last decades of the 19th and the opening decades of the 20th centuries. The article is based on results previously delivered in historical works of other researchers and on original texts coming from the era which is the subject of the present report. The review focuses on the main topics of scientific investigation related to heart diseases - the subject of interest for physicians who are depicted herein. It should be stressed that only part of their intellectual heritage could be presented, with only a limited selection of names, articles, or books. Nevertheless, even when narrowed in scope, it shows innovativeness in many aspects of practical and scientific approaches to clinical problems. It also brings to our mind times when the dreams of many have wandered around the independence of one's homeland, dreams which finally came true in 1918. From Adam Raciborski, who was fighting in the November Uprising and then was forced to leave Polish soil, to Andrzej Klisiecki, a soldier of the resurrected Polish army, defending his country against the Bolshevik invasion in 1920, the majority of researchers would take a strong patriotic attitude and work for the benefit of society. When Poland was back on the maps of Europe, they were able to open a new chapter in their scientific research, valuing the treasure of independence.

[The position of mechanic of surgical instruments in the first ten years of prof. Ludwik Bierkowski's clinic]. / Funkcja Mechanika Instrumentów Chirurgicznych w pierwszym dziesiecioleciu istnienia kliniki prof. Ludwika Bierkowskiego.

The aim of this paper is to show the significance of the function of Mechanic of Surgical Instruments in raising up a modern, in 19th century terms, surgical clinic by prof. Ludwik Bierkowski. Exploiting mainly source materials, this article discusses the character of mechanical occupations and his duties. The personality of Gotlob Jentsch, first to take this position, and his immediate successor Karol Schneider and their relations with Bierkowski were also presented.

Ludwik Bierkowski and the early days of general anaesthesia in the Polish soil in February 1847.

Ludwik Bierkowski belonged to the elite of surgeons of the first half of the 19th century. Educated in an excellent German university, Bierkowski had in-depth and comprehensive knowledge, a wide range of practical skills and was continuously eager to search for new solutions. He introduced cotton wool for wound dressings, experimentally determined the conditions of blood transfusions and published two outstanding anatomo-surgical atlases, which ranks him among the leading physicians of those days. Moreover, he was the first to use ether for effective general anaesthesia in the Polish lands, the procedure that changed the course of the history of medicine. Bierkowski performed ether anaesthesia in less than four months after the first world and in less than two months after the first European demonstration, which rates him among the most modern surgeons of those times. This year we celebrate the 170th anniversary of this event.

Browicz or Kupffer cells?

The paper is concerned to problem of discovery of macrofage cells present in the liver sinusoid, which are recognized in the world medical literature as Kuppffer cells. On the other hand in Poland the name of professor Tadeusz Browicz is firmly connected with the cells resulting in eponymous Browicz cells. The authors are trying to determine who has priority in this respect; Karl Kupffer, a professor of anatomy in Koniggsberg, and then in München, or professor of pathological anatomy at Jagiellonian University, Tadeusz Browicz.

[Philosophy of medicine by Ferdynand Karol Dworzaczek]. / Filozofia medycyny Ferdynanda Karola Dworzaczka.

This paper is devoted to person of Ferdynand Karol Dworzaczek who should be seen as the first Polish physician and philosopher interested in philosophy of medicine. Well educated, with deep interest in theory and practical side of medicine he became first in Poland and very first in Europe to point the importance of philosophical thinking in medicine. His first lecture on this subject--Preface to Philosophy of Medicine, given in Warsaw in 1856, was in fact first lecture in this field ever given in Poland. Year later he published his main work tilted About Philosophy of Medicine in which we can find the core of Dworzaczek's philosophical view on the subject of medicine. His philosophy of medicine could be described as idealistic, with very strong deterministic impact, deeply anchored in religion. Understandably it had to be in opposition to materialism an mechanistic conception of life. For Dworzaczek the nature of life has dualistic character; it has its spiritual and biological significance in the same time, so spirit dominates and shapes biological function of every organism. It can be said, that Dworzaczek's philosophy of medicine was influenced in the first place by Plato and Hippocrates. It had also connection with medical conceptions of Paracelsus and van Helmont. However it was not original and fresh, Dworzaczek's philosophy was important and real background for polish school of philosophy of medicine, which flourished in second half of 19th century. By that Dworzaczek should be traded as father of Polish philosophy of medicine.

[Anatomy in the perspective of Kazimierz Kostanecki]. / Anatomia w ujeciu Kazimierza Kostaneckiego.

Kazimierz Telesfor Kostanecki (1863-1940) remains one of the most important figures in the history of Polish medicine and natural science. He was the creator of one of the biggest scientific schools on Polish soil, a researcher versatile, working in parallel on many fields of natural science exploration. In his view, anatomy has become a dynamic and comprehensive science, that combines what today belongs to histology, cytology and embryology. Kostanecki has created an universal model of research, referring to comparative methods and based on planned series of experimental studies, especially when it came to issues related to developmental anatomy and mechanics of fertilization. This model was used and developed by his students and followers. It is not surprising, therefore, that the name Kostanecki has been repeatedly reported in the world literature, and a number of phenomena and facts established by him has kept its value, which comes obviouswhen we still can find citations of Polish scholar works in the contemporary monographs and articles.

Pharmacology of vascular endothelium. Delivered on 27 June 2004 at the 29th FEBS Congress in Warsaw.

Sir John Vane named vascular endothelium 'the maestro of blood circulation'. Recently, 'the maestro' has become a target for pharmacotherapy of atherothrombotic and diabetic vasculopathies with well known cardio-vascular drugs belonging to the families of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme inhibitors, HMG CoA reductase inhibitors or beta1-Adrenoceptor antagonists. These drugs became upgraded to a position of the pleiotropic endothelial drugs. It is not a simple verbal change in the nomenclature. It means that these drugs apart from their well defined mechanisms of action, as indicated in their regular names, in addition they act in an unknown mechanism at the level of vascular endothelium preventing angina, myocardial infarction and stroke. Many biochemical events take place in endothelial cells. I chose for a closer inspection the nitric oxide/prostacyclin defensive system to explain the endothelial pleiotropism of the drugs in question. I tried to examine the validity of this conception according to the general rule: in vitro cognitio sed in vivo veritas.

[JUBILEE OF "MEDYCYNA NOWOZYTNA" ["MODERN MEDICINE MAGAZINE"]. / JUBILEUSZ "MEDYCYNY NOWOZYTNEJ".

In 1922 appeared the first, proof copy of a magazine which two years later was titled "Modern Medicine. Studies on the history of medicine". The idea to create a new periodical was born among the historians of science, who focused their scientific interest on the topics of medicine's past. The major purpose was to make a thorough revision of methodological views that usually did not go beyond the positivist or Marxist model. They aspired to some kind of "opening up" to the content present in philosophy and the history of science, including in particular epistemological theories of Ludwik Fleck, Thomas Kuhn or Michael Foucault. Consistent references were made to the experiences and findings of cultural anthropology, psychology, sociology and history of arts, highlighting the problems which in national medical historiography had been previously rarely, if ever, present. "Classical" form and content of works published in the magazine was not excluded, though, since the purpose of the editorial staff was not so much to fight against the traditional model of the history of medicine as its enrichment and gradual transformation in the spirit of contemporary needs. The aim of this article is to present as completely as possible--both the content of "Modern Medicine" and the achievements of people contributing to the magazine for the past twenty years of its existence. It is also an attempt to evaluate to what extent the guidelines set two decades ago have been realized in practice.